Ancient Buildings Research Articles

Semi-supervised contrastive learning for remote sensing: identifying ancient urbanization in the south-central Andes

ABSTRACT Archaeology has long faced fundamental issues of sampling and scalar representation. Traditionally, the local-to-regional-scale views of settlement patterns are produced through systematic pedestrian surveys. Recently, systematic manual survey of satellite and aerial imagery has enabled continuous distributional views of archaeological phenomena at interregional scales. However, such ‘brute force’ manual imagery survey methods are both time- and labour-intensive, as well as prone to inter-observer differences in sensitivity and specificity. The development of self-supervised learning methods (e.g. contrastive learning) offers a scalable learning scheme for locating archaeological features using unlabelled satellite and historical aerial images. However, archaeological features are generally only visible in a very small proportion relative to the landscape, while the modern contrastive-supervised learning approach typically yields an inferior performance on highly imbalanced datasets. In this work, we propose a framework to address this long-tail problem. As opposed to the existing contrastive learning approaches that typically treat the labelled and unlabelled data separately, our proposed method reforms the learning paradigm under a semi-supervised setting in order to fully utilize the precious annotated data (<7% in our setting). Specifically, the highly unbalanced nature of the data is employed as the prior knowledge in order to form pseudo negative pairs by ranking the similarities between unannotated image patches and annotated anchor images. In this study, we used 95,358 unlabelled images and 5,830 labelled images in order to solve the issues associated with detecting ancient buildings from a long-tailed satellite image dataset. From the results, our semi-supervised contrastive learning model achieved a promising testing balanced accuracy of 79.0%, which is a 3.8% improvement as compared to other state-of-the-art approaches.

FTIR AND THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS OF ANCIENT MORTAR FROM AL-AMUWAQQAR EARLY ISLAMIC BATHHOUSE IN JORDAN FOR CONSERVATION USE

"This paper aims to analyze and evaluate the function of two types of ancient mortars in the bathhouse at al-Muwaqqar archaeological site in Jordan to promote the awareness level of cultural heritage conservation of ancient buildings and mortars in Jordan. The conservation of archaeological structures requires a thorough characterization and identification of the mortar components before carrying out the restoration, after the preserved results, and during the restoration process to decide how it responds. This work creates an experimental contribution through FTIR to study the influence of organic components on the mechanical performance of the mortar. The application of new techniques in terms of sustainability and compatibility is nowadays more and more important to preserve historical monuments, especially in the context of the increasing damage to the mortar joints in the al-Muwaqqar site. The paper presents new results concerning the identification of the binding materials of mortars, especially the organic parts as egg white or other organic components used in the bathhouse to connect the mosaics, and the collection of further information for compatibility challenges. The results will provide a new pioneering approach application in Jordan in the field of ancient restoration using mortar. The study concludes that it is easy to identify all the organic components of the mortar using Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) in the different bands of the organic material supported by thermogravimetric analysis TGA/SEMEDX. The investigations of both methods have provided accurate information about the technology of mortar production and have indicated a proteinaceous additive in the mortar."

Characterization of the Materials and Techniques of Red Lacquer Painting of a Horizontal Plaque Inscribed by General Feng Yü-hsiang

The “Tian Di Chang Chun” horizontal plaque was inscribed by General Feng Yü-hsiang in R.O.C. 25 (1936). Due to the aging of the materials and some factors in the preservation environment, the red painted layer on the surface of the plaque has shed. In this study, in order to analyse the materials and techniques used for the production of the inscribed plaques, the digital microscope system, scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (μ-FTIR) were used to analyse the materials and techniques used on this plaque. It has been shown that the decorative layer of the plaque consists of a red Chinese lacquer film layer on the surface and a ground layer. The red lacquer film layer comprises Chinese lacquer, tung oil, and cinnabar. The materials used for the ground layer are blood putty made of a blood product, youman (flour–oil–lime mixture), and brick powder. The technique used is the SDH (San Dao Hui) layer technique in ancient buildings. This study provides physical evidence regarding the materials and techniques used in inscribed plaque relics, and also provides technical support to further protect and restore the plaque.

Unique gene duplications and conserved microsynteny potentially associated with resistance to wood decay in the Lauraceae.

Wood decay resistance (WDR) is marking the value of wood utilization. Many trees of the Lauraceae have exceptional WDR, as evidenced by their use in ancient royal palace buildings in China. However, the genetics of WDR remain elusive. Here, through comparative genomics, we revealed the unique characteristics related to the high WDR in Lauraceae trees. We present a 1.27-Gb chromosome-level assembly for Lindera megaphylla (Lauraceae). Comparative genomics integrating major groups of angiosperm revealed Lauraceae species have extensively shared gene microsynteny associated with the biosynthesis of specialized metabolites such as isoquinoline alkaloids, flavonoid, lignins and terpenoid, which play significant roles in WDR. In Lauraceae genomes, tandem and proximal duplications (TD/PD) significantly expanded the coding space of key enzymes of biosynthesis pathways related to WDR, which may enhance the decay resistance of wood by increasing the accumulation of these compounds. Among Lauraceae species, genes of WDR-related biosynthesis pathways showed remarkable expansion by TD/PD and conveyed unique and conserved motifs in their promoter and protein sequences, suggesting conserved gene collinearity, gene expansion and gene regulation supporting the high WDR. Our study thus reveals genomic profiles related to biochemical transitions among major plant groups and the genomic basis of WDR in the Lauraceae.

Experimental research on progressive collapse behavior of Chinese ancient timber buildings with different joint strengthening methods

Many Chinese ancient timber buildings present various damages due to material performance degradation, natural environmental influence, and human improper action during the long history. These existing damages make them vulnerable to different progressive collapse scenarios. Investigation of scientific strengthening approaches to prevent them from progressive collapse is urgent. This study compared the effect of different joint reinforcing approaches that are commonly employed for Chinese ancient timber buildings through experimental studies. The structural performance of frames reinforced by U nails, steel plate, or Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) sheet under Single-Column Removal (SCR) scenario was compared. Then, the deformation and failure modes of these reinforced joints were investigated. Finally, the moment and axial force in the beam before and after the reinforcement were concerned to understand the strengthening mechanism of the above reinforcement approaches. The results show that: the reinforcement can improve both the load bearing capacity and the ductility of the structure in the collapse. The improvement of the ultimate load is because the reinforcement can increase the ultimate moment at the joint. A better ductility of the collapse should be ascribed to a large axial force in the beams due to the reinforcement. Compared with the no-reinforced frame, improvement of the load bearing capacity due to the aforementioned three types of strengthening is ordered as follows: steel-plate reinforcement (359–639%) > CFRP reinforcement (297–430%) > U-nail reinforcement (90–286%). The failure of the steel-plate reinforcement is comparatively brittle while the failure of the other two presents great ductility. Besides, according to the experimental results, several suggestions for anti-collapse strengthening in engineering practice with respect to each aforementioned reinforcement are proposed. This suggestion is also applicable to the engineering strengthening practice of ancient timber structures in Asia.

The organic–inorganic hybrid sol for the consolidation of decayed wood in architectural heritage

Generally, the mechanical property defects and surface cracks are often presented in partly decayed wood components that are treated with silicon-based inorganic consilidants. To solve the problem, an organic–inorganic hybrid sol for the conservation of decayed wood was developed in this work, in which the polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was introduced into the silicon inorganic sol formed by the sol–gel process of ethyl orthosilicate and methyl triethoxysilane. The properties of decayed wood treated with the organic–inorganic hybrid sol were characterized by performance tester, microcomputer control electron universal tester, simulation of swelling-shrinkage and thermal gravimetric analyzer. The consolidation mechanism was affirmed by scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The results revealed that the introduction of PVA into the hybrid sol led to a great improvement in comprehensive mechanical properties of the treated wood, accomplishing the swelling-shrinkage properties of the decayed area closer to those of sound area in wood. The improved properties could be ascribed to the hybrid gel coats formed on the surfaces of wood cells, which displayed a good performance in enhancing mechanical properties and thermostability. The hybrid sol can be used as a potential material to consolidate the partly decayed wood components for the protection of ancient wooden buildings.

Identification of Tree Species and Extent of Material Deterioration of Wood Components in the Yangjia Courtyard Ancient Building

Abstract The identification of the tree species and the extent of material deterioration in the wooden components of the walkway of the first courtyard of the ancient Yangjia Courtyard were analyzed in this study using bright-field microscopy, polarized light, fluorescence, and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy methods. The results are as follows: (1) samples No. 1 and No. 2, and No. 4, No. 3, and No. 5 taken from the roots of the wooden pillars were identified as lace-bark pine wood (Pinus bungeana), poplar woods (Populus spp.), large-fruited elm wood (Ulmus macrocarpa), and spruce wood (Picea sp.), respectively on the basis of observation of anatomical structural characteristics and analysis of selection principle of “local selection” in ancient buildings. (2) The observation of polarization and fluorescence and the analysis of FTIR spectra showed that the brightness of crystalline cellulose birefringence reduced severely, and analysis of FTIR spectra showed that the absorption peaks representing cellulose and hemicellulose in the lace-bark pine and spruce wooden components disappeared or decreased. However, the polarization and fluorescence and the FTIR spectra of the poplar and elm wooden components showed that the brightness of the crystalline cellulose birefringence and the absorption peaks remained constant, as the controls did. (3) According to the results of the effects of the polarization and fluorescence effects and the FTIR spectra, we concluded that the lace-bark pine and spruce wooden components were severely attacked by brown rot fungi; in contrast, the wooden components of poplar and elm were not attacked by wood decay fungus, but were attacked by insects. These results provide scientific guidance for subsequent preventive conservation such as preservative treatment and insect prevention.

LEARNING FROM HISTORICAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA TO ADAPT FOR GREEN 3D PRINTING OF HOUSES

ABSTRACT 3D printing technology is currently one of the fast-emerging technologies in the infrastructure construction field. Ancient Sub-Saharan African building construction made extensive use of a wide range of earthen materials and vernacular structures. The main goal of the research discussed in this paper is to learn from historical building construction in Africa and adapt the methodology, material use, and geometry or form to 3D print sustainable and green residential houses in tropical and arid regions. The study addresses the current 3D printing technology for construction of houses using Sub-Saharan African historical sustainable and green materials such as cob, bamboo, and hemp-material based structures. Earthen materials are cost-effective, naturally insulated, and environmentally friendly, which makes them stand out from other sustainable construction materials. Two main geometry models are designed in this study for a 3D printing construction method based on the Sub-Saharan African historical housing forms. Moreover, the study contributes to achieving a green building that satisfies the UN sustainable development goals.

Review: Giuliano da Sangallo and the Ruins of Rome

Review: <i>Giuliano da Sangallo and the Ruins of Rome</i>

Comparative study of the combustion and kinetic characteristics of fresh and naturally aged pine wood

Given the long-term effects of natural ageing, the wooden structure and combustion performance of ancient buildings have changed. Therefore, studying the combustion characteristics of naturally aged pine (NAP) trees may help provide a basis for the numerical simulation of fires in ancient buildings. In this study, NAP and fresh pine (FP) with a natural ageing duration of approximately 100 years were selected as samples. The morphology, thermal weight loss process, exothermic characteristics, and combustion characteristics of these two types of pine were examined through scanning electron microscopy, synchronous thermal analysis, and cone calorimetry. In addition, the thermodynamic parameters of both the samples were analysed and evaluated. The results indicated that the natural ageing effect resulted in pore enlargement and severe damage to the cell structure of pine wood. Compared with FP, the ignite of NAP decreased by 15.2 °C, and the heat dissipation of NAP during oxidative combustion decreased by 0.26 kJ/g. In addition, the average apparent activation energy of NAP during pyrolysis combustion increased by 22.03 kJ/mol compared with FP, but the overall combustion performance decreased. During the combustion process, NAP tended to form a dense carbonisation layer, resulting in a decrease in the heat release rate, total heat release rate, flue gas release rate, and CO and CO2 release rate during combustion.

Visual Representation of Cultural and Collegial Collaboration.

Description Our colleagues are those on whom we not only rely to help us with patient care and advocacy but also to establish a meaningful and collaborative relationship. The connection between comrades of different departments and specialties facilitates a deep understanding of the intricacies involved in treating a variety of maladies, and we quickly find ourselves ardently discussing our own life struggles, achievements, woes, and joys with those whom we once considered strangers, which only demonstrates the steadfastness of our professional and collegial relationships. However, for a holistic approach to the discipline of healing, the interconnectedness of other subdisciplines needs to be recognized. Therefore, in an attempt to bridge the perceptual disciplinary gaps, the commonalities of approach, and affinities of cultural traditions need to be integrated. In this painting, one can appreciate a central stained-glass pattern that mimics those seen in ancient Persian forts and buildings of old. The medium used is acrylic paint, embellished with glitter and sparkling rhinestones to add an element of elegance and regality. Surrounding the central pattern are intricate and brightly colored South Asian henna designs, which often decorate the palms of individuals celebrating auspicious occasions. This combination of elements reflects how different cultures and backgrounds can intermingle and enhance both the technique as well as the visual beauty of mutual interactions and the awareness of interconnectedness.

Literal translation extraction and free translation change design of Leizhou ancient residential buildings based on artificial intelligence and Internet of Things

The decorative pattern art of ancient residential buildings in Leizhou exists with its unique charm in the architectural decoration culture of Lingnan. In order to facilitate the inheritance of Leizhou culture, this paper proposed artificial intelligence and Internet of Things methods, and wanted to use modern digital technology to directly extract the most basic decorative pattern genes on ancient residential buildings in Leizhou. Through the combination of fashion, metaphor, and creative design methods, the paper innovated the changing design of patterns and integrate them into modern product design to promote the development of local product economy. It has enriched the database of modern design and helped the construction of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Cultural Bay Area. Applying artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things to the experimental design, and using modern technology to extract and free translation of symbols in architectural language, the experimental results showed that the artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things send building data in about 0.65 s, and the number of data fusion is about 93. Improvements reduced the amount of data fusion, which increases the accuracy of survey results with modern technology. This made it easier to count the architectural language symbols of ancient Leizhou residents, and facilitated the modern utilization of cultural inheritance and promotion.

In-plane cyclic tests of strengthened rubble stone masonry

This paper focuses on the in-plane behaviour of rubble stone masonry with lime mortar strengthened with different solutions. For that, 12 rubble stone masonry wall specimens, with construction features typical of ancient historic buildings of Southern Portugal and Mediterranean countries, were subjected to in-plane quasi-static cyclic tests. The applied retrofit solutions are specific for historic masonry buildings, such as the injection of mortar and FRCM systems, with glass and carbon meshes. The main experimental results obtained are presented through envelope curves, in terms of resistance, deformation capacity, and deformed shapes. Moreover, dissipated energy is also commented on. Horizontal drift results are compared and analysed together with the ones obtained in the literature for equivalent strengthening solutions in masonry walls.

Parameter analysis on longitudinal lateral force resistance of Song dynasty timber frame with Panjian

The Panjian structure is an important longitudinal connecting member of Song Dynasty hall-type buildings in China. To study the lateral force resistance of such structures, a refined finite element model of Song-style hall-type single-room four-column space timber frame containing Panjian structure was established based on the official building code Yingzao Fashi of Song Dynasty. The Panjian and inner E’fang in the lower-ping part, the Panjian in the upper-ping part, and Guazi-gong Panjian and Man-gong Panjian in the roof ridge part were investigated. The model hysteresis curves of all three parts of the longitudinal timber frame were found to be S-shaped, with obvious pinching effect, fuller at both ends and centrosymmetric shape. The Panjian structures in the lower-ping and upper-ping parts, and the Guazi-gong Panjian in the roof ridge part increased the energy dissipation and lateral stiffness of the timber frame. The Man-gong Panjian in the roof ridge part, however, was detrimental to the lateral resistance of the structure. Throughout the test, the Panjian structures were relatively intact, with large plastic damage occurring at both ends of the E’fang. For the repair and testing of similar ancient buildings, some reference suggestions are provided.

A parametric analysis of the “digitally-derived geometric design” of the façade of the Macau St. Dominic’s Church

ABSTRACT The Macau St. Dominic’s Church was built in 1588 and renovated in 1828. This ancient building in Macau’s historical town is listed in UNESCO’s World Heritage List. “Digitally-derived Geometric Design” is an important implicit logic of the correlation between numbers and shapes in Western Classic Architecture, and the method of parametric analysis is highly effective in the interpretation of “Digitally-derived Geometric Design”. However, there are limited digital studies on Western Classic Buildings in the Far East and even less conducted from a parametric and detailed perspective. With the façade of the Macau St. Dominic’s Church as the research subject, this study applied the methods of historical document research, field measurement and digital analysis, especially parametric analysis with the assistance of the modeling software of Rhinoceros 6.0 and the software plug-in of Grasshopper, and analyzed the design features of the façade: its upward “successive decrease by equal difference” in stratification, modularization and golden ratio. The “digitally-derived” design pattern of the Macau St. Dominic’s Church is of significant historical value.

CFD Modelling and Analysis for Green Environment of Traditional Buildings

With the enhancement of people’s awareness of heritage protection, research communities focusing on the natural ventilation of the layouts of ancient buildings have paid more attention to the planning and protection of these buildings. Based on the relationship between the natural ventilation environment and the layout of the building, we can reduce the adverse effects of energy consumption and outdoor wind, improve the environment and quality around the building, and achieve harmony between humans and nature. In this study, Fluent software was used to simulate the wind environment of Xingguo Temple. The advantages of combining computer simulation software with ancient building protection planning are illustrated by comparing the wind environment before and after the temple reconstruction with Fluent software. Through the simulation of the building’s wind environment, some suggestions are put forward for the early layout of the outdoor environment in the ancient building reconstruction planning area.

Recognition of Damage Types of Chinese Gray-Brick Ancient Buildings Based on Machine Learning—Taking the Macau World Heritage Buffer Zone as an Example

As a result of environmental and human influences, several types of surface deterioration emerge on historic buildings, resulting in a decline in the quality of these structures and even threats to their safety. In the conventional approach, assessing the surface damage on a structure involves the time-consuming and labor-intensive judgment and evaluation of trained professionals. In this study, it is suggested that the YOLOv4 machine learning model be used to automatically find five types of damage to historical gray-brick buildings. This would make the job go more quickly. This study uses the gray-brick wall buildings in the buffer zone of the global cultural heritage in Macau as an example. In total, 1355 photographs were taken on-site of the gray-brick walls, and the five most common types of damage were identified. By slicing and labeling the photos, a training set of 1000 images was created, and through 200-generation model training, the model can accurately identify and effectively identify the damage state of the gray bricks and enhance the quality judgment and evaluation of the exterior walls of historical buildings. Experiments allow us to reach the following conclusions: (1) The damage to the gray-brick ancient buildings in Macau is affected by the subtropical maritime climate. Missing paint, stains, and cracks are the main contributors to gray-brick wall damage. (2) Machine learning can help determine the type of damage to old gray-brick buildings, which is useful for managing and protecting historical buildings. (3) The model in this study can identify five types of damage: missing, cracking, plant or microbial erosion, yellowing, and pollution on the exterior walls of ancient gray-brick buildings. It is helpful to accurately identify and evaluate the damaged condition of the gray-brick wall and formulate corresponding protection schemes.

Spectroscopic Investigation of a Color Painting on an Ancient Wooden Architecture from the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Prince Dai’s Mansion in Jiangsu, China

This research sheds light on the analysis of pigments and adhesives applied on a color painting on wooden architecture in Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Prince Dai’s mansion, located in Changzhou, Jiangsu Province in China. Four samples were collected from the painting above the building beam in the mansion, and the samples were analyzed and identified using a series of techniques, including polarized light microscopy (PLM), scanning electron microscope coupled with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), micro-Raman spectroscopy (m-RS) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The results indicate that the red, black, blue, and green pigments were identified to be cinnabar, ivory black, indigo, and phthalocyanine green, respectively. The green pigment was inferred to be a lately repainted pigment based on its production age, suggesting that this ancient building had been refurbished or repaired. Given the good stability and visual effect of this green pigment, it is suggested to be used in future conservation processes. The pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass Spectrometry (Py-Gc/Ms) results indicate that glue containing protein was used as a binder for the pigment samples, and that walnut oil might have been applied to the wooden architecture as a primer before painting. Our findings can well inform curators and conservators of the selection of appropriate restoration materials if necessary, and also provide data support for conservation of similar ancient buildings in southern China.

Abnormal Data Recovery of Structural Health Monitoring for Ancient City Wall Using Deep Learning Neural Network

ABSTRACT Continuous structural health monitoring is of great importance to preventive conservation for ancient architectural heritages. However, abnormal monitoring data may trigger false alarming of structural damages. SHM of ancient buildings also needs abnormal data recovering. Most of the existing studies used the neural network with single input dimension and forward prediction to recover abnormal data, which is difficult to accurately predict long data sequences. This study developed a novel abnormal data recovery framework. The main novelty of the proposed framework is that the input and output configurations of the GRU model are optimized. Meanwhile, to make full use of the forward and backward information of the abnormal data sequence, bidirectional prediction is used to improve the prediction accuracy. The framework is implemented in the abnormal monitoring data recovering for an ancient city wall built 600 years ago in Beijing. Three types of abnormal data, including outlier, drift, and missing, are considered in this study. The results reveal that the proposed framework has high accuracy in abnormal data recovering of strain and crack width. The recovered data has the same regular diurnal variation as the normal monitoring data. The linear correlation between the structural responses and wall temperature gets obviously improved after data recovering. The proposed framework shows great capacity of abnormal data recovery for structural static responses of ancient buildings, which are usually influenced by environmental temperature variation.

Influence of Coal Mining on Historical Buildings: Case Study in Shanxi

Numerous historical buildings exist in Shanxi Province, a major coal producing area in China, so there exist many overlapping areas between ancient wooden buildings and coal mining. Coal mining in overlapping areas will lead to surface subsidence, which will have an impact on historical buildings. Based on the distribution of historical buildings and the distribution and mining of coal resources in Shanxi Province, this paper concludes that the overlapping areas of coal mining and ancient wooden buildings in Shanxi Province are mainly concentrated in Changzhi City, and the Lu'an mining area in Changzhi City is selected as the research object. In addition, using the gray correlation analysis method, the surface subsidence coefficient, which characterizes the intensity of mining subsidence, is used as the reference sequence. Seven factors selected from the geological conditions and mining conditions of the Lu'an mining area are used as the comparison sequence to calculate the gray correlation between each influencing factor and the surface subsidence coefficient, and to obtain that geological factors such as the nature of the overlying rock layer, bedrock thickness and dip angle of the coal seam, and mining factors such as mining height, average mining depth and working face size largely determine the surface subsidence coefficient. The surface subsidence in the overlap area could largely be influenced by geological factors such as the nature of the overlying rock layer, bedrock thickness and coal seam inclination, and mining factors such as mining height, average mining depth and working face size. Finally, we investigate the possible effects of surface subsidence on ancient wooden buildings in the overlapping area with the surface subsidence and formation mechanism and propose technical measures to reduce the effects of surface subsidence due to coal mining on historical buildings in the overlapping area.