Ancient Buildings Research Articles

Evaluating the stability of architectural heritage from the perspective of InSAR: a practical study on Jianchuan Ancient Town

AbstractThe increase in human activities and natural degradation often leads to tilting, collapsing, and other forms of deterioration in architectural heritage, posing significant threats to its safety. Therefore, timely detection of abnormal deformation signals in buildings is essential for the protection of architectural heritage. Spaceborne synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) can detect slight displacements over large areas. However, relying solely on annual mean velocity maps derived from InSAR may not accurately assess the stability of ancient buildings. In this study, we developed a framework that evaluates the stability of individual buildings by integrating the InSAR displacements with building footprints. Vertical and rotational deformations, along with the temporal evolution of these deformations, are combined to generate the results for building stability assessment. We used 74 TerraSAR-X images captured from August 2017 to November 2019 to evaluate the stability of Jianchuan Ancient Town, a renowned National Historical and Cultural City in China. The displacement result suggests that the majority of Jianchuan Ancient Town remains stable, with over 93% of coherent points (CTs) displaying displacement velocities ranging from −5 to 5 mm/yr. Out of the 1,891 buildings in Jianchuan Ancient Town, 1404 are considered stable, 352 are of moderate stability, and 12 are deemed unstable. This study showed the potential of InSAR applications in assessing the stability of architectural heritages, emphasizing its crucial role in heritage preservation and management.

Raw materials and building technologies in the public buildings of Pompeii after the earthquake of 62/63 CE: A diachronic analysis of mortars

The paper deals with the technological aspects of the construction site of Pompeii through the characterization of the mortars, focusing on the identification of raw materials, their supply areas, selection criteria and mixing techniques to evaluate the continuity and changes in the different construction phases. Thanks to a multidisciplinary protocol that integrates archaeological, architectural, minero-petrographic and geochemical analyses, the study reveals that the binders were obtained from burning limestones from Mt. Lattari, while the aggregates are compatible with products from the Somma-Vesuvius volcano. The mortars from the period before 62/63 CE are characterised by a careful selection and preparation of the raw material, while the mortars from the period after 62/63 CE indicate a less precise procedures, probably due to the urgent need for reconstruction after the earthquake. Despite these changes, the essential quality and hydraulic properties of the mortars remained intact, demonstrating the resilience of ancient building practises.

Study on the fluid-solid transition mechanism of natural hydraulic lime pastes: Consider the water to binder ratio and polycarboxylate superplasticizer

Natural hydraulic lime (NHL) is used as a grouting material in the restoration of ancient buildings, the formation and evolution of its early workability are crucial for the reliability of the restoration effects. This paper conducts an in-depth study on the effects of water to binder (w/b) ratio and polycarboxylate superplasticizer (SP) dosage on the viscoelastic properties of fluid-solid transition process in NHL paste through tests on the fluidity, rheological characteristics, micro-rheology, hydration heat release, and early phase composition. The results show that the fluidity of NHL paste significantly increases with increasing w/b ratio and SP dosage, while its yield stress and plastic viscosity show downward trend, and it has shear thinning characteristics. In the initial stage, elevated w/b ratio leads to the significant reduction in both macroscopic viscosity index (MVI) and elastic index (EI) of NHL paste, along with delayed rapid increases, the effect is even more pronounced by adding SP. High w/b ratio or adding SP are able to enhance the dispersed state of solid particle in NHL pastes, the viscoelastic transition point of NHL paste is delayed and the viscoelastic transition time is prolonged. Increasing the w/b ratio and adding SP both inhibit the early dissolution and hydration of NHL paste, affecting the fluid-solid transition process. Overall, as the spatial network gradually develops by the solid particles dissolve and continue to hydrate, NHL paste undergoes a transition from a viscous fluid to an elastic semi-fluid state, exhibiting low strength and noticeable plasticity characteristics. With further hydration, NHL paste initiates consolidation and hardening processes, progressively transforming from a plastic semi-fluid into hardened paste.

Przedświt: fascynacja architekturą mykeńskiej i archaicznej Grecji w Niemczech schyłku XIX i początków XX wieku

At the beginning of the 20th century, German architecture saw a turn towards the art of antiquity, which was partly a reaction to the profusion of decoration in late historicism and Art Nouveau. However, the so-called Reformarchitektur was interested not only in classical antiquity (and the art of classicism and neoclassicism), but also in earlier periods, especially Mycenaean art. This was, of course, related to the discoveries in Troy, Mycenae and Tiryns, but the social and political context of the time was equally important. One of the foundations on which the national identity of the Germans in the 19th century was based was the myth of the ancient Germans, who were supposed to be characterized by courage, sincerity and natural morality. According to the creators of this idea (F. Avenarius, J. Langnehn, A. Haupt, G. Kossinna et al.), the Germans, next to the Greeks, were one of the original peoples of Europe (Urvolk), sharing ideas and artistic forms. In the north of the continent, they were allegedly preserved longer than in the Mediterranean area because the Nordic nations did not take part in the development of mimetic art. Consequently, it was believed that in the architecture of the Mycenaean period, as well as in buildings from the Homeric and archaic periods (as well as in Etruscan and ancient Roman buildings), we could find forms typical of the unpreserved Nordic architecture, destroyed in the process of Christianization. Therefore, Mycenaean and archaic architecture became the subject of interpretation in the spirit of nationalism, perceived, however, in a broader sense than just the framework of one nation. This was related to the category of “Nordic nations” as well as an even broader vision of the “primordial peoples of Europe”. These views and research became one of the inspirations for the architecture created at that time with reformatory, modernizing ambitions.

Zonal Reconstruction of Daylighting in Historic Built Environments: A Workflow to Model and Evaluate Light in Spatial and Temporal Domains

Computer simulation allows to study daylight conditions in the past that afforded activities in antique buildings. The Python module phos4dtools implements the efficient computation of zonal daylight metrics that are considered to indicate affordances. It was employed to solve horizontal and vertical illuminance for different orientations and elevations in the House of the Priestesses, a unit of the Hadrianic Garden Houses complex in Ostia. A reconstruction model of the unit was produced by collating an existing, detailed 3D documentation with other sources and our own survey data. The spatially and temporally resolved results of daylight simulation employing phos4dtools were imported into a GIS database. Assuming typical reflectance properties, illuminance thresholds were determined that are required for the perception of contrast detail and colour differences. Integration over temporal periods and spatial zones that are eligible for residential activities was implemented by queries to the database. First, preliminary results indicated different distributions of affordances by daylight, depending on the characteristics of the considered visual tasks. Horizontal illuminance decreases quickly with increasing distance to the aperture, suggesting that activities bound to a horizontal work plane were constraint to the immediate adjacency of windows and potentially open doors. Vertical illuminance, on the other hand, reaches deep into the building when the receiving surface is oriented to a window, particularly in the absence of exterior obstructions. The exemplary application of phos4dtools shows its potential in the interdisciplinary research on daylight and its implications on living practice in antique buildings.

Preventive Preservation of Rammed Earth Historical Heritage Through Continuous Monitoring, Architectural Inspections, and Data Fusion

Rammed earth construction, an ancient and sustainable building technique, faces significant preservation challenges, particularly in historical contexts. This study aims to enhance the preventive preservation of rammed earth historical heritage through a comprehensive methodology combining continuous monitoring, architectural inspections, and data fusion. By integrating nondestructive testing techniques such as ultrasound, thermography, and ground-penetrating radar with operational modal analysis and modeling, the proposed approach allows for early detection and assessment of structural vulnerabilities. This methodology was applied to the Tower of Muhammad in the Alhambra of Granada, Spain, demonstrating its effectiveness in identifying and quantifying damage and predicting structural health. Using multi-source data (documentation, inspections, nondestructive tests, and continuous monitoring), a finite element model was built, calibrated (achieving an avg. error in modal frequencies of 1.28% and a minimum modal assurance criterion value of 0.94), and used to develop a surrogate model able to predict the modal properties of the tower in 0.02 s, becoming compatible with continuous system identification. The presented results highlight the importance of continuous data acquisition and advanced diagnostic tools for safeguarding rammed earth structures against environmental and anthropogenic threats. This study advocates for the adoption of digital twins in historical preservation, facilitating informed decision-making and sustainable management of cultural heritage.

Assessing the Fire Properties of Various Surface Treatments on Timber Components in Ancient Chinese Buildings: A Case Study from the Xianqing Temple in Changzhi, Shanxi, China

Traditional and modern coatings play a key role in enhancing the fire resistance of ancient Chinese buildings. However, further comparative analysis is needed on the fire properties of the two coatings and their effects on different timber structural components. This study focuses on the main hall of the Shanxi Changzhi Xianqing Temple, a typical traditional column and beam construction built between the Song and Jin periods. Firstly, the combustion characteristics of various timber structural component samples with different surface treatments (traditional “Yi-ma-wu-hui” and modern flame retardants) were analyzed using cone calorimeter. Secondly, the fire development process of the Xianqing Temple building model was analyzed by a fire dynamics simulator (FDS), and the effect mechanism of different surface treatments on the burning process was further studied. The results show that the fire resistance of timber structural components is significantly improved after modern and traditional surface treatments. The traditional method is more effective in delaying the peak heat release rate and reducing the surface temperature during combustion, while the modern surface treatment significantly prolongs the ignition time of the timber structural components. The FDS results confirm that modern and traditional surface treatments significantly improve the fire resistance of the building, delaying the flashover time by about 300 s, with no collapse occurring within 800 s. In addition, the fire resistance of buildings after traditional surface treatment is better compared to traditional methods. The above research results can provide direct data support for the selection and optimization of fireproof coatings and treatment methods for ancient buildings.

Algorithm and Tool Development for Creative Generation of Graphic Design of Folk Houses and Ancient Buildings Integrating Cultural and Creative Elements

This study presents an innovative approach called CNN-GA for graphic design for folk houses and ancient buildings, which integrates Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) with Genetic Algorithms (GA) to foster the creation of culturally rich and aesthetically appealing graphic designs in architecture. Our research focuses on capturing the essence of folk houses and ancient buildings, deeply rooted in cultural heritage, and reimagining them through a modern computational lens. The CNN component of our model is trained on a diverse array of architectural imagery, enabling it to effectively recognize and categorize key elements such as motifs, textures, and structural forms inherent to various architectural styles. This neural network acts as an intelligent extractor of cultural and aesthetic features, providing a nuanced understanding of traditional architectural elements. The extracted features are then input into a GA, which embarks on an evolutionary process of design generation. This process iteratively combines and refines the architectural elements, fostering a creative exploration of design possibilities that maintain cultural integrity while introducing innovative interpretations. The synergy of CNN and GA in our CNN-GA framework allows for an automated yet insightful design process, yielding graphic designs that are not only architecturally sound but also resonate with the rich cultural narratives of folk houses and ancient buildings. This research holds significant potential in revolutionizing architectural graphic design, offering a novel tool for architects and designers to merge traditional aesthetics with contemporary design paradigms.

Automatic modeling of the current state components of ancient buildings based on 3D deformation algorithm

AbstractAncient buildings possess significant artistic and cultural value. The digitization of these structures is a crucial aspect of their restoration, providing foundational data for subsequent stress and health analyses. However, creating accurate models of ancient buildings is a challenging endeavor, even for experienced researchers, especially when dealing with a large number of structures. A pressing issue that needs addressing is how to quickly obtain accurate models of ancient buildings while ensuring both precision and efficiency. Currently, one of the more precise methods for reconstructing models of ancient buildings involves the use of scanned point clouds and manual reconstruction through modeling software. However, this method suffers from poor accuracy and low efficiency, making the modeling process complex and time-consuming. In this article, we will refer to the model generated from the point cloud of real components as the "current state model", and the unforced mesh model of the ancient building as the "standard model". An algorithm is proposed to construct the current state model of ancient buildings by guiding the deformation of the unforced standard model using the scanned point cloud model. First, this paper designs an automatic modeling method for ancient building components as the foundational data before deformation, addressing the issue of low modeling efficiency for ancient buildings. Second, it proposes a method for automatically calculating deformation control point pairs based on the characteristics of ancient buildings, solving the problem of manually locating control points. Finally, the proposed adaptive weight Laplacian deformation algorithm is applied to deform the standard model into the current state model.

Crack Evolvement of Ancient Brick Masonry Under Uniaxial Compression Fatigue Loading

ABSTRACT Cracking is an essential intuitive indicator of damage in masonry structures. Evaluating the progression of fatigue cracks in ancient brick masonry structures is vital for the preservation and safety of ancient buildings. By conducting amplitude cyclic uniaxial compression tests on ancient brick masonry specimens, using the video image correlate-3d (VIC-3D) technology to collect images of the entire process from loading to failure, the development of fatigue cracks is analyzed and concluded. A reversed S-shaped function for fatigue crack evolution was established based on the fatigue damage mechanism. The model parameters’ physical significance, value range, and their impact on the model curve were discussed. The fatigue damage evolution equation was derived from the fatigue crack evolution model. The research results show that a reversed S-shaped function for fatigue crack evolution covers various types of fatigue crack evolution laws, with strong adaptability and high accuracy. The damage evolution curve established, based on the fatigue crack evolution model, has a reversed S-shaped change rule, and was divided into three stages: the first stage (0 N f ~ 0.1 N f ) fatigue damage grows faster; the second stage (0.1 N f ~ 0.9 N f ) fatigue damage growth is stable, close to linear change; when the cycle ratio exceeds 0.9, it enters the third stage, and fatigue damage increases rapidly.

The Characteristics of Component of Lime Mortars with Perilla Oil

A lime is a traditional material that has been used for a long time and has been used in ancient tumb, fortress walls, ondol, buildings, and lime-mortar barrier tombs. Based on the literature records used lime with additive materials, in this study, observed changes in the composition of perilla oil according to curing environment, sampling position, and time tor time mixed or applied with perilla oil among traditional lime additive materials by pyrosis gas chromatography mass spectrometery (Py-GC-MS) and Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy(FT-IR) analysis. For perilla oil, unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic acid, and linoleic acid, saturated fatty acid, palmitic acid were identified as the main component, and as perilla oil was cured, the ratio of saturated fatty acids such as azelaic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid tended to increase. This trend has also been confirmed in lime mortars using perilla oil. In limes mixed with perilla oil, oleic acid is predominantly detected. In the case of lime coated with perilla oil, no characteristic component was identified in the internal sample, and a change in characteristic components were confirmed according to the indoor and outdoor environments on the coated surface. Palmitic acid, stearic acid, and oleic acid were detected as main components in a stable indoor environment, but azelaic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid were identified as main components as they were exposed to the climate environment(outdoor). In particular, it is characterized by the fact that it was detected only in mortar applied with azelaic acid. However the possibility of grasping perilla oil using FT-IR was expected to have a detection limit depending on the concentration of perilla oil. Such analysis results are expected to contribute to the discovery of lime additive materials used in cultural heritage and the research on construction technology in the future.

Research on the Vibration Fatigue Characteristics of Ancient Building Wood Materials

In this study, we selected ancient building timber as the research object. A series of static load tests were conducted to analyze the different performances of timber under tensile and compressive loads. After that, vibration fatigue tests on ancient timber samples were carried out under different upper limit stress ratios. Finally, a dynamic constitutive model of ancient timber was established based on the Ramberg–Osgood model. The static load test results show that the tensile strength was approximately 80% of the compressive strength. Meanwhile, the samples that failed under compressive pressure had obvious residual strength, and their failure strains were also much larger than those under tensile stress. In the vibration fatigue tests, the stress–strain curves were analyzed and the results showed that the curves displayed a trend moving to sparse from dense during the loading process. Meanwhile, the curves moved right with the increase in the upper limit stress ratios. The relationship between axial strain and the number of cycles appeared to be characterized by a three-stage form, i.e., damage occurrence, damage expansion, and damage penetration, and this relationship was formulated by a nonlinear function model. Finally, a dynamic constitutive model with high accuracy in describing the vibration fatigue characteristics of ancient timber was established by converting constant parameters to the variable parameters of the Ramberg–Osgood model.

Effect of slenderness ratio on axial compression behavior of circular wood columns strengthened with high-performance bamboo-based composites

Developing sustainable high-performance bamboo-based composites (HPBBC) with carbon sequestration benefits as reinforcement material is of great significance in promoting the application of HPBBC and securing ancient wooden buildings. Available column reinforcement methods have damage characteristics, which are unsuitable to be applied in ancient wooden columns because the ancient building needs to be preserved in the current conditions. The wooden column was bound with HPBBC and spaced steel strips to achieve damage-free strengthening. The slenderness ratio is an essential factor affecting the mechanical properties of wood poles, which is significant to be studied. The effect of the slenderness ratio on the axial compression behavior of circular wood columns strengthened with HPBBC was investigated in this study. The test results showed that the slenderness ratio significantly influences the failure mode, load-bearing capacity, and deformability of strengthened circular wood columns. The typical failure mode of short columns was a crushing failure, while the long columns were buckling failures. The load-carrying capacity and longitudinal strain of strengthened circular timber columns decrease significantly with increasing slenderness ratio. The lateral displacements or buckling appearance increases significantly with the increasing slenderness ratios of the strengthened timber column. A load-bearing capacity formula was proposed to predict the load capacity of strengthened circular wood columns based on their axial compression damage characteristics. The error between the calculated and tested results is less than 8.2 %.

Numerical Investigation on Stability of Lanxi’s Ancient City Wall during a Major Flood Propagation Process

Major flood propagation processes often cause instability and damage to the ancient waterfront city walls. To quantitatively reveal the impact of major floods on the stability of ancient city walls, this paper takes Lanxi’s ancient city wall as a study object and constructs a numerical model to investigate the influence of the major flood process in 2017 on the wall stability and reveals the varying laws of its seepage, displacements, maximal shear stresses and safety factors with flood propagation time on the basis of flood level data, combining indoor experiments and field observations. The results show that flood level variations significantly affect the PWPs (pore water pressures) of the fillings behind the wall. During the flood period, the maximal horizontal and vertical displacements are mainly induced by soil extrusion and deformation, and the maximal shear stresses of the outer and inner wall also significantly increase. The changing rates of the wall’s safety factors measurably exceed that of the flood level. The flood level variation range dramatically affects the safety factors when it changes near and above the wall foot. The minimum of the safety factors decreases with the increasing flood level falling rate when it drops near the wall foot at different rates. The ancient city wall usually does not experience serious instability under a single major flood. This study can provide a theoretical basis for the selection of reinforcement measures for flood control ancient city walls and the protection of ancient waterfront buildings.

Bio-mimicry in architecture: An explorative review of innovative solution toward sustainable buildings

Bio-mimicry is the imitation of the way nature solves problems. Architects and designers can utilize the ways nature follows to solve and address design problems. This science has helped humans in all life’s aspects, especially in the field of architecture. From the dawn of history, people constructed special buildings to suit their needs. At first, the building process was hard, and the structure was simple and rigid with rough details and they kept repeating the same form. Therefore, architects have been searching for answers for their building complexes, and they found that nature was the best source of solutions. The structures then took different forms, were decorated with deep and graceful ornaments, the walls became thinner, more openings were constructed and the buildings became more beautiful and had more dignity. So, nature imitation has become the best approach for architects to deliver bold ideas to their surroundings. We can still see how the ancient unique buildings are standing still until this time, as in some Egyptian temples, Greek and Roman columns, and Byzantine ornaments. Imitation of nature in buildings is either through aesthetic, structural, or sustainability aspects. In this research, we are exploring the potential of Bio-mimicry to support sustainability, using a number of case studies throughout history, classifying and analyzing them.

Micro-mechanical properties of Song Dynasty tilestones based on nanoindentation tests and homogenization approach

Song Dynasty tilestones are one type of ancient Chinese building materials. Studying their mechanical properties is of great significance for the design and development of restoration materials. It is a challenge to sample and perform traditional tests (ϕ50mm × 100mm) for the tilestone cultural relics. In this work, a combination of nanoindentation techniques and the homogenization calculation method based on the Mori–Tanaka model were used to determine the mechanical parameters of Song Dynasty tilestones. The study process involved several steps: (1) Using X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy to examine the surface morphology and mineral composition of the tilestones. (2) Determining the mechanical parameters (i.e., the elastic modulus, hardness and fracture toughness) through nanoindentation tests. (3) Upgrading mechanical parameters from micro to meso-scale using the Mori–Tanaka model and comparing these with uniaxial compression test results. The result shows that the red tilestones and green tilestone are mainly composed of quartz, feldspar and mica. The average elastic modulus of the red tilestones and the green tilestones are 29.47 GPa and 30.21 GPa, respectively. Compared with the parameter result obtained by upscaling, the deviation rates of the red tilestones and green tilestones are 10.3% and 9.6%, respectively, which proves that the test method is reliable. The nanoindentation test and homogenization approach in this work provide the robust theoretical and practical basis for evaluating the mechanical strength of Song Dynasty tilestones.

A virtual reconstruction method for corridor gable buildings based on the knowledge of structural dynamics: taking Leiyin Cave as an example

Virtual reconstruction of ancient buildings often has incomplete records of the original design and construction details, and can only be reconstructed based on limited data, drawings and photography, which is different from the actual conditions. The unique overhanging structure of the corridor gable building makes it vulnerable to damage in extreme weather conditions. In order to ensure that the virtual reconstruction results can not only reproduce the original appearance of history, but also ensure that the reconstructed model maintains structural stability in the long term. This paper proposes a reconstruction method of the original appearance of the corridor gable building remains based on structural dynamics analysis. This method comprehensively uses three-dimensional reconstruction, structural engineering, dynamic analysis, and computer simulation technology to ensure the structural accuracy and historical authenticity of the virtually reconstructed corridor gable building. First, through data collection and analysis, combined with ancient architectural construction techniques, a preliminary three-dimensional model was created, which included all structural elements and details. Several groups of reconstruction schemes are determined based on material properties. Then, using finite element analysis software, perform dynamic analysis on the three-dimensional model. Evaluate the stability of the reconstructed structure and optimize the material selection plan to ensure the feasibility and accuracy of the virtual reconstruction. Taking the virtual reconstruction of the eaves in front of Leiyin Cave as an example, it shows that this method is effective and feasible to achieve the virtual reconstruction of corridor gable buildings. It provides new ideas for virtual reconstruction of ancient buildings and has important practical application value.

Research Progress and Prospects of “Urban Memory” Renewal Planning Paths — Based on International Comparative Perspective

Urban memory is preserved not only in the collective consciousness of residents but also through tangible and intangible heritage, such as old streets, ancient buildings, and historical sites. Protecting urban memory helps maintain the city’s authentic historical character and enhances its sense of belonging. This paper systematically collects and organizes research materials on urban memory planning from both domestic and international sources, categorizes and analyzes the relevant literature, and reviews the perspectives, content, methods, and planning practices in urban memory research worldwide. By summarizing these research experiences, the paper aims to deepen the understanding of urban memory theory and offer new recommendations for renewal planning practices guided by urban memory.

Scientific-Practical Enhancement Principles for the Long-Term Stability of Cultural Heritage Objects through a Multi-Component Underground Space Analysis

This article presents approaches for enhancing engineering-geological and geotechnical research for the restoration and reconstruction projects of cultural heritage objects in St. Petersburg’s historical center. According to the Venice Charter, an interdisciplinary approach is recommended for developing a preservation program for cultural heritage objects. The authors consider the underground space as a multi-component system, where soils are a host medium for underground water with specific composition, complex physicochemical and biochemical conditions, the presence and vigorous activity of microorganisms, gases of various origins, and underground bearing and enclosing structures. The last of these components is crucial for the long-term stability of historical and cultural objects, as they interact in complex with water-saturated soils and microorganisms. This approach is not to be found in Russian cultural heritage preservation regulations. In engineering-geological and geotechnical research, multi-component underground space should be studied at the regional, local, and object levels. Assessing redox conditions in the underground environment is crucial for understanding the state of its components. Moreover, this can trigger hazardous processes such as changes in the stress–strain state and unconsolidation of the soil layer due to the generation of low-solubility gases and biocorrosion of ancient and modern building materials, causing premature destruction. Recommendations are provided for carrying out engineering-geological and geotechnical research based on cultural heritage objects, considering the multi-component underground space and features of its geoenvironmental state due to the long-term contamination and transformation of its components.

Measurement of Conservation Value of Ancient Buildings from the Perspective of Climate Risk Based on the Entropy Weighting Method

Measurement of Conservation Value of Ancient Buildings from the Perspective of Climate Risk Based on the Entropy Weighting Method