Antimatter Annihilation Research Articles

О базовых проблемах науки энергетического права: некоторые размышления

This article discusses issues of the fundamentals of the energy law science, noting their insufficiency in this sphere and the resulting ineffectiveness of both exploratory and applied research. As a result, laws and regulations in the energy sector, which is the basis of the national economy, is also inadequate. The author concludes that while scientific and technological progress in the energy sector is advancing rapidly, its legal regulation is lagging behind. There is a lack of coordination among leading scientific and legal researchers of existing institutions in energy law. The author suggests drastically expanding the scope of comprehensive training for higher scientific qualification personnel majoring in energy law, which would require specialized thesis boards. In the future, as the mankind masters inexhaustible and voluminous types of energy, such as lightning energy, time energy, and energy formed by the annihilation of matter and antimatter, etc., appropriate laws and regulations will be necessary (it is a must) preceded by scientific and legal study of the issue.

Experimental protocol for testing the mass–energy–information equivalence principle

The mass–energy–information equivalence principle proposed in 2019 and the information content of the observable matter in the universe estimated in 2021 represent two important conjectures, called the information conjectures. Combining information theory and physical principles of thermodynamics, these theoretical proposals made specific predictions about the mass of information as well as the most probable information content per elementary particle. Here, we propose an experimental protocol that allows for empirical verification of the information conjectures by confirming the predicted information content of elementary particles. The experiment involves a matter–antimatter annihilation process. When an electron–positron annihilates, in addition to the two 511 keV gamma photons resulting from the conversion of their rest masses into energy, we predict that two additional low energy photons should be detected, resulting from their information content erasure. At room temperature, a positron–electron annihilation should produce two ∼50 µm wavelength infrared photons due to the information erasure. This experiment could, therefore, confirm both information conjectures and the existence of information as the fifth state of matter in the universe.

Evaluation of solid-core thermal antimatter propulsion concepts

Energy released during antimatter annihilation can be used to heat a working fluid to directly produce thrust (an “antimatter rocket”) or run a thermodynamic cycle to generate power for conventional electric propulsion systems (antimatter power generation). For a solid reactor core, we evaluate and compare such antimatter propulsion concepts and assess the resulting performance for different propellants (hydrogen, water, methane, and carbon dioxide) and electric propulsion technologies (arcjets, Hall thrusters, and gridded ion thrusters). In contrast to positron–electron annihilation (which only produces gamma rays), complete stopping of relativistic pions released during antiproton–proton annihilation increases the required reactor core size by approximately an order of magnitude, resulting in significantly larger propulsion systems. Because of reactor core material considerations, the maximum temperature and specific impulse achievable in antimatter rockets is limited. By instead operating the core at a lower temperature to drive a closed thermodynamic Brayton cycle, antimatter power generation can run electric propulsion systems with higher specific impulses. Although this reduces the propellant mass needed for a given mission, the combination of thermodynamic cycle efficiency (around 30%) and electric thruster efficiency (typically between 30%–70%) increases the antimatter mass required by one to two orders of magnitude. The lower thrust of electric propulsion systems also leads to longer burn and maneuver times. Considering emerging industry trends, the use of renewable propellants offers large potential benefits to future antimatter propulsion systems that can refuel in space.

Simulation of an Antimatter Beam Core Engine for Space Travel

An exciting prospect is the use of antimatter as a fuel source due to its ability to convert mass energy to kinetic energy. Upon annihilation of antimatter with matter, tremendous amounts of energy are carried away by charged and neutral particles. By redirecting the charged particles through an exhaust using a non-uniform magnetic field, an impulse can be generated capable of supplying thrust to an engine. Using the Geant 4 simulation toolkit developed by CERN, we simulate this process using a beam core engine design. By analyzing charged pions that result from antiproton-proton annihilation, we optimize the engine parameters and derive a specific impulse for antiproton fuel as used in the beam core configuration. A specific impulse of (2.49 ± 0.08) × 106 s was determined. This value is significantly higher than specific impulses of current chemical rocket fuels which range from 240 - 400 s.

Nature of Time in Quantum Mechanics

We have an uncertain future continuously coming into existence relative to the instant absorption and emission of photon energy. The future is a blank canvas that we can interact with forming the possible into the actual. And the future we are dealing with is from our point of reference. The future is unfolding with each photonelectron interaction with the respective elements of the periodic table and the individual waves formed by the electromagnetic spectrum. It’s a process of energy exchange that forms reality. If we look at the quantum world, the ‘past’ is represented by anti-matter annihilation which maintains a balance between matter and anti-matter showing a balance between the future and the past. In the Delayed Choice Quantum Eraser Experiment, time is unfolding photon by photon within the experiment, within our frame of reference. But we have an infinite number of reference frames coming in and out of existence with a timeline for each object. What is our past might be the future to an observer from a different frame of reference. Everything is relative.

Evidence of zirconium nano-agglomeration in as-cast dilute U–Zr alloys

Microstructure evaluation of as-cast and annealed U–Zr (Zr=2, 6 and 10wt.%) alloys has been carried out for the first time using positrons as a probe. The chemical signature in the matter–antimatter annihilation gamma and the positron lifetime data suggests that majority of positrons are annihilating from Zr sites in the as-cast alloys. The results have been interpreted as due to the presence of Zr nano-agglomerates in the as-cast alloys which have a higher positron affinity as compared to the rest of the U matrix. A minimum agglomerate size of ∼2nm diameter has been calculated from the difference in positron affinity between the agglomerates and the matrix. Upon annealing, the Zr signature in the annihilation gamma photons vanishes suggesting that the Zr agglomerates diffuse out of U matrix and form micron-sized precipitates. This has been confirmed by scanning electron microscopy which shows a 3 times increase in the surface density of the precipitates in the annealed alloys as compared to the as-cast ones. Shorter positron diffusion length (measured using slow positron beam) as compared to precipitate separation has been invoked to explain the observed data.

On the gravitational redshift

The study of the gravitational redshift—a relative wavelength increase of ≈2×10-6 was predicted for solar radiation by Einstein in 1908—is still an important subject in modern physics. In a dispute whether or not atom interferometry experiments can be employed for gravitational redshift measurements, two research teams have recently disagreed on the physical cause of the shift. Regardless of any discussion on the interferometer aspect—we find that both groups of authors miss the important point that the ratio of gravitational to the electrostatic forces is generally very small. For instance, the ratio of the gravitational force acting on an electron in a hydrogen atom situated in the Sun’s photosphere to the electrostatic force between the proton and the electron in such an atom is approximately 3×10-21. A comparison of this ratio with the predicted and observed solar redshift indicates a discrepancy of many orders of magnitude. With Einstein’s early assumption that the frequencies of spectral lines depend only on the generating ions themselves as starting point, we show that a solution can be formulated based on a two-step process in analogy with Fermi’s treatment of the Doppler effect. It provides a sequence of physical processes in line with the conservation of energy and momentum resulting in the observed shift and does not employ a geometric description. The gravitational field affects the release of the photon and not the atomic transition. The control parameter is the speed of light. The atomic emission is then contrasted with the gravitational redshift of matter–antimatter annihilation events.

GRI: The Gamma-Ray Imager mission

With the INTEGRAL observatory ESA has provided a unique tool to the astronomical community revealing hundreds of sources, new classes of objects, extraordinary views of antimatter annihilation in our Galaxy, and fingerprints of recent nucleosynthesis processes. While INTEGRAL provides the global overview over the soft gamma-ray sky, there is a growing need to perform deeper, more focused investigations of gamma-ray sources. In soft X-rays a comparable step was taken going from the Einstein and the EXOSAT satellites to the Chandra and XMM/Newton observatories. Technological advances in the past years in the domain of gamma-ray focusing using Laue diffraction have paved the way towards a new gamma-ray mission, providing major improvements regarding sensitivity and angular resolution. Such a future Gamma-Ray Imager will allow studies of particle acceleration processes and explosion physics in unprecedented detail, providing essential clues on the innermost nature of the most violent and most energetic processes in the Universe.

Fusion reactions and matter–antimatter annihilation for space propulsion

Magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) and inertial confinement fusion (ICF) are critically contrasted in the context of far-distant travels throughout solar system. Both are shown to potentially display superior capabilities for vessel maneuvering at high speed, which are unmatched by standard cryogenic propulsion (SCP). Costs constraints seem less demanding than for ground-based power plants. Main issue is the highly problematic takeoff from earth, in view of safety hazards concomitant to radioactive spills in case of emergency. So, it is recommended to assemble the given powered vessel at high earth altitude ∼ 700 km, above upper atmosphere. Fusion propulsion is also compared to fission powered one, which secures a factor of two improvement over SCP. As far a specific impulse (s) is considered, one expects 500–3000 from fission and as much as 104–105 from fusion through deuterium–tritium (D-T). Next, we turn attention to the most performing fusion reaction, i.e., proton–antiproton annihilation with specific impulse ∼ 103–106 and thrust–to–weight ratio ∼ 10−3–1. Production and costs are timely reviewed. The latter could drop by four orders of magnitude, which is possible with successful MCF or ICF. Appropriate vessel designs will be presented for fusion as well as for antimatter propulsion. In particular, ion compressed antimatter nuclear II (ICAN-II) project to Mars in 30 days with fusion catalyzed by 140 ng of antiprotons will be detailed (specific impulse ∼ 13500 s).

Prospects in space-based gamma-ray astronomy

Observations of the gamma-ray sky reveal the most powerful sources and the most violent events in the Universe. While at lower wavebands the observed emission is generally dominated by thermal processes, the gamma-ray sky provides us with a view on the non-thermal Universe. Here particles are accelerated to extreme relativistic energies by mechanisms which are still poorly understood, and nuclear reactions are synthesizing the basic constituents of our world. Cosmic accelerators and cosmic explosions are the major science themes that are addressed in the gamma-ray regime. With the INTEGRAL observatory, ESA has provided a unique tool to the astronomical community revealing hundreds of sources, new classes of objects, extraordinary views of antimatter annihilation in our Galaxy, and fingerprints of recent nucleosynthesis processes. While INTEGRAL provides the global overview over the soft gamma-ray sky, there is a growing need to perform deeper, more focused investigations of gamma-ray sources. In soft X-rays a comparable step was taken going from the Einstein and the EXOSAT satellites to the Chandra and XMM/Newton observatories. Technological advances in the past years in the domain of gamma-ray focusing using Laue diffraction and multilayer-coated mirror techniques have paved the way towards a gamma-ray mission, providing major improvements compared to past missions regarding sensitivity and angular resolution. Such a future Gamma-Ray Imager will allow to study particle acceleration processes and explosion physics in unprecedented detail, providing essential clues on the innermost nature of the most violent and most energetic processes in the Universe.

Relativistic rocket and space flight

We introduce the new concept of “proper speed”. It turns out that relativistic space flight can be sized and described more adequately by this concept. In particular, it is shown that the physics and equations of relativistic and classical space flight have a one-to-one relationship. The rocket equations are even identical. In addition, we generalize the expressions for the rocket exhaust speed to systems with mass and/or photon propulsion. With this new insight the basic relativistic spaceflight are easily derived and summarized and it is shown that they can be readily transformed into those of classical space flight. We also provide the space-time transformation equations for a cruising rocket, for a rocket with constant acceleration, and for a rocket with constant thrust (with and without inflight thrust reversal to slow down to zero speed at the target). For each of these cases a representative flight through the milky way with a ultimate matter–antimatter annihilation drive is calculated.

Antimatter Requirements and Energy Costs for Near-Term Propulsion Applications

The superior energy density of antimatter annihilation has often been pointed to as the ultimate source of energy for propulsion. However, the limited capacity and very low efficiency of present-day antiproton production methods suggest that antimatter may be too costly to consider for near-term propulsion applications. We address this issue by assessing the antimatter requirements for six different types of propulsion concepts, including two in which antiprotons are used to drive energy release from combined fission/fusion. These requirements are compared against the capacity of both the current antimatter production infrastructure and the improved capabilities that could exist within the early part of next century. Results show that although it may be impractical to consider systems that rely on antimatter as the sole source of propulsive energy, the requirements for propulsion based on antimatter-assisted fission/fusion do fall within projected near-term production capabilities. In fact, a new facility designed solely for antiproton production but based on existing technology could feasibly support interstellar precursor missions and omniplanetary spaceflight with antimatter costs ranging up to $6.4 million per mission.

Antideuteron yield and coalescence implications at the AGS

We present the preliminary results of Experiment 864's search for antideuterons in 11.5 GeV/c per nucleon Au + Pt collisions at the AGS. The data represents 14 billion 10% central interactions selectively triggered for events with high mass candidates. Antideuteron invariant yields are found to be 3.5 ± 1.5( stat.) +0.9 −0.5( sys.) × 10 −8 GeV −2 c 2 in the rapidity range between y = 1.8 and 2.2 ( y cm = 1.6) for 〈 p t 〉= 0.35 GeV/c and 3.7±2.7( stat.) +1.4 −1.5( sys.) × 10 −8 GeV −2 c 2 between rapidities y = 1.4 and 1.8 at 〈 p t 〉= 0.26 GeV/c. These yields, along with E864 antiproton measurements, lead to a most probable value for the coalescence factor B 2 of 4.1 ± 2.9( stat.) +2.3 −2.4( sys.) × 10 −3 GeV −2 c 3 after correcting antiproton yields for antihyperon feeddown contributions. Implications for the coalescence model and antimatter annihilation from an antideuteron measurement are also discussed.

Energy deposition in antimatter meteors

Antimatter meteors, like ordinary ones, can be heated during their infall flight. However, this could happen by a completely different process than in the case of koinomatter meteors, since in the latter case the annihilation interactions mechanism is absent. In case of antimatter meteors, the temperature may be increased mainly due to the energy deposition effect, caused by the passage of the annihilation secondaries penetrating throughout the meteor. The energy deposition of the secondary particles produced in matter antimatter annihilation interactions as a function of the dimensions of an antimatter meteor is described in this paper.

Annihilation localization in gas-core and plasma-core annihilation rocket engines

Antimatter annihilation is the most energetic known form of on-board spacecraft propulsion. It is capable of achieving interstellar travel at near-light speeds. More experimental and theoretical work must be done to show that this form of propulsion is feasible and practical for the near future. For efficient gas-core and plasma-core annihilation engines it is necessary that antiprotons be injected into the engines at energies which place the annihilation region at the center of the engine and that the size of the annihilation region be small compared to the engine size. Sufficient information exists to estimate required injection energies and the annihilation distribution when the annihilation medium/propellant is hydrogen. The estimates show that currently envisioned gas- and plasma-core engines require achievable antiproton injection energies and have sufficiently small annihilation regions.

What is the evidence on antigalaxies?

Recent observations show collisions or mergers among galaxies to be far more frequent than formerly anticipated. IRAS data have shown the most luminous FIR sources to involve such mergers. The luminosity of some of those mergers could be fueled by annihilation of matter and antimatter, and it is possible that this mechanism provides a way in which the existence of antigalaxies in the universe could become evident. If galaxy-antigalaxy collisions were prevalent among IRAS mergers, the 100-MeV gamma-ray flux from the most luminous merging galaxies would be roughly twice as high as the observed IR flux. Current data on a few of the brightest sources disqualify these as colliding galaxy-antigalaxy pairs. A systematic absence of gamma radiation from all ultraluminous IRAS sources would imply that antigalaxies must be rare or else located at extreme redshifts. In any case, galaxy-antigalaxy collisions cannot constitute a substantial fraction of all IRAS mergers, because their combined gamma flux would exceed the observed gamma-ray background.

Cosmic γ-rays from dark matter and antimatter annihilation

In this paper, we present details of the physics of cosmic γ-ray production by the annihilation of dark matter particles and cosmological antimatter. For the latter process, considerations of γ-ray absorption and scattering at high redshifts is important and we review the physics of these processes also. Cosmic γ-ray spectra are calculated and presented and compared with present observational data on cosmic γ-ray fluxes at high galactic latitudes. A comparison with the γ-ray flux from cosmic-ray interactions is made and the observability of annihilation γ-rays is considered.

Investigation of antimatter air-breathing propulsion for single-stage-to-orbit ships

Because the mutual annihilation of matter and antimatter releases all the energy that is stored within the physical structure of material mass, it provides the most powerful reaction that is possible for propulsive thrust. This paper considers the use of such annihilation energy for single-stage-to-orbit vehicles that would be powered by rocket and air-breathing propulsion and would reach and return from orbit with a single propulsive stage.

Gamma ray constraints on annihilation in active galaxies

Observational constraints bearing on the possibility that active galaxies are powered by matter–antimatter annihilation are discussed. It is shown, contrary to previous work, that annihilation is not ruled out by observations.

Upward and Onward with Storage Rings

Upward and Onward with Storage Rings