Anticoagulant Rodenticides Research Articles

Use of anticoagulant rodenticides: a silent threat to biodiversity in a city of Northern Colombian Andes

Use of anticoagulant rodenticides: a silent threat to biodiversity in a city of Northern Colombian Andes

First evidence of the suitability of hair for assessing wildlife exposure to anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs)

Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are potent pesticides acting as vitamin K epoxide reductase inhibitors causing haemorrhaging or external bleeding from orifices and/or skin lesions in intoxicated rodents. However, their non-selective mode of action makes them particularly harmful for non-target wildlife, which may be exposed to ARs via ingestion of AR-containing baits (primary exposure), feeding on AR-intoxicated rodents and carrions (secondary exposure), consuming AR-contaminated necrophagous species (tertiary exposure), and exposure to surface waters receiving baited sewer systems and ARs from outdoor-placed traps after heavy rain events. In the present study, we assessed the suitability of hairs as a non-invasive matrix for monitoring the possible exposure of mammals to ARs with a focus on the first-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (FGARs) warfarin, coumatetralyl, and chlorophacinone and the second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) brodifacoum, bromadiolone, difenacoum, flocoumafen, and difethialone. The Red fox (n = 24) was selected as the species representing the potentially exposed non-target wildlife in a littoral area of Northern Italy along the Adriatic coast (Cavallino-Treporti municipality). Half (n = 12) of the analysed hair samples were positive for at least one of the targeted ARs, with a higher prevalence of SGARs (n = 11; 46%) compared to FGARs (n = 1; 4%). The most frequently quantified ARs were brodifacoum (25%), difethialone (13%), and flocoumafen (13%), with concentrations ranging from 0.08 ng g−1 (difethialone) to 0.96 ng g−1 (brodifacoum). These data documented that a relevant part of the Red foxes living in the study area were exposed to ARs and, most importantly, provided the first evidence that hair residues can be used as a non-invasive matrix for assessing the possible exposure of mammals to ARs.

Second-Generation Anticoagulant Rodenticide Toxicosis in a Wild Carnaby's Cockatoo (Zanda latirostris).

A wild male Carnaby's cockatoo (Zanda latirostris) was presented to a veterinary hospital after falling from a tree. The bird showed few clinical signs during the first days of hospitalization. On Day 4, the cockatoo showed excessive hemorrhage at a venipuncture site, epistaxis, and significant anemia (packed cell volume, 15%). The cockatoo was euthanized due to ongoing blood loss, weakness, and inappetence. Liver concentrations of brodifacoum (0.439 mg/kg wet weight) and difenacoum (0.033 mg/kg wet weight) had a total anticoagulant rodenticide concentration of 0.472 mg/kg wet weight and were above the threshold for toxicity for many avian species. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first time that anticoagulant rodenticide intoxication has been identified in a wild Australian psittacine species.

Field Efficacy of Anticoagulant Rodenticide Towards Managing Rodent Pests in Jitra Rice Field, Kedah, Malaysia.

Frequent encounters with the greater bandicoot rats (Bandicota indica) following high rodent damage towards rice crops and lack of information on the species had encouraged this study to be conducted to test the relevance of using first- and second-generation rodenticide in a field efficacy test. This study also attempts to detect any sign of resistance of current rodent pest populations towards chlorophacinone (0.005%) and flucoumafen (0.05%) for the control of field rats predominant rice field agrosystem of the Kedah in northern peninsular Malaysia. Six different treatments over dry and wet rice planting season together with trapping exercise. The observation was evaluated based on the number of active burrows, counting tiller damage due to rodent attack and trapping index. The results indicated that flucoumafen gives better rodent control and has a better impact (p < 0.05) although chlorophacinone is still relevant to be applied (p < 0.05). Treatments during the off-planting season (September-February) are more effective compared to the main planting season (March-August). Rodent control during the early off-planting season is encouraged for better rodent management in the rice field and the use of bait stations to increase the weatherability of the baits.

No evidence of mutations associated with anticoagulant resistance in gene Vkorc1 in brown and black rats from Barcelona

Synanthropic rodents such as the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) and black rat (Rattus rattus) are a source of disturbance in urban areas and the focus of control programs. Control measures often rely on anticoagulant rodenticides, but their broad use is compromised by the emergence of resistance. Here we studied the prevalence of anticoagulant resistance genotypes in the Vkorc1 gene in rats in the metropolitan area of Barcelona. In this area, part of the management practices to control brown rats include anticoagulant rodenticide use, but rodenticides with different active ingredients are used in rotation. Brown rats were sampled from the sewage system during two periods: from December 2016 to November 2017 when difenacoum and brodifacoum were used, and from August 2021 to July 2022 when bromadiolone was used. Because black rats have just recently been detected in Barcelona, we only studied them during the latter sampling period, with samples obtained from a control action carried out in a green urban area. Exon 3 of the Vkorc1 gene was characterized in both species, while exon 1 was additionally analyzed in black rats. Synonymous mutations, not resulting in amino-acid changes, were found in both exons, indicating no evidence of anticoagulant resistance in the rats of Barcelona. This finding indicates that the current rodent management plan in Barcelona, which involves anticoagulant rotation for brown rats and the use of life capture traps in specific situations for black rats, has helped to prevent the emergence of resistance to anticoagulant rodenticides in rats in Barcelona. Future actions should aim to diversify the control measures included in the rodent management plan.

Differential exposure to second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides in raptors from continental and insular regions of the Iberian Peninsula

The global impact of anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) on non-target species is well-recognized. Birds of prey, as apex predators, are highly vulnerable to AR exposure and are widely used as biomonitors for priority pollutants in Europe. This study investigates differential SGAR exposure in raptors from insular versus continental regions, hypothesizing greater exposure in insular areas due to ecological factors like reduced prey diversity, intensive rodenticide use, and resistant rodent populations. We analyzed the livers of 190 common kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) and 104 common buzzards (Buteo buteo) across the Iberian Peninsula and its archipelagos using LC-MS/MS to assess their role as AR sentinels and the differences between insular and continental areas. Results revealed a high prevalence (>80%) of second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs), with brodifacoum and bromadiolone, being the most frequent. Multiple SGAR detections were also common (≈50%). A binomial logistic regression showed that species and region significantly influence the likelihood of SGAR exposure. Kestrels had a greater probability of exceeding 100 ng/g wet weight (ww) compared to buzzards. Raptors from insular territories were ten times more likely to have higher SGAR concentrations than those from continental areas. However, the legal restriction on SGAR bait concentrations that came into effect in 2018 did not significantly impact exposure levels. This study highlights the need for targeted conservation efforts to mitigate AR exposure risk in vulnerable island ecosystems.

Bromadiolone may cause severe acute kidney injury through severe disorder of coagulation: a case report

BackgroundBromadiolone is a wide-use long-acting anticoagulant rodenticide known to cause severe coagulation dysfunction. At present, there have been no detailed reports of acute kidney injury (AKI) resulting from bromadiolone poisoning.Case presentationA 27-year-old woman was admitted to the hospital due to severe coagulopathy and severe AKI. Coagulation test revealed a prothrombin time exceeding 120 s and an international normalized ratio (INR) greater than 10. Further examination for coagulation factors showed significantly reduced level of factors II, VII, IX and X, indicating a vitamin K deficiency. The AKI was non-oliguric and characterized by gross dysmorphic hematuria. Following the onset of the disease, the patient’s serum creatinine rose from 0.86 to 6.96 mg/dL. Suspecting anticoagulant rodenticide poisoning, plasma bromadiolone was identified at a concentration of 117 ng/mL via gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. All other potential causes of AKI were excluded, except for the presence of a horseshoe kidney. The patient’s kidney function fully recovered after the coagulopathy was corrected with high doses of vitamin K and plasma transfusion. At a follow-up 160 days post-discharge, the coagulation function had normalized, and the serum creatinine had returned to 0.51 mg/dL.ConclusionBromadiolone can induce AKI through a severe and prolonged coagulation disorder. Kidney function can be restored within days following treatment with high-dose vitamin K1.

Comparing anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in barn owl (Tyto alba) and common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus): A biomonitoring study in an agricultural region of southeastern Spain

Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) are commonly used for rodent control, affecting various non-target wildlife species. Here, blood samples from common kestrels (Falco tinnunculus, n = 70 chicks) and barn owls (Tyto alba, n = 54 chicks and 12 adults) from Southeastern Spain were analysed using HPLC-TQ. SGAR prevalence was 68.6% in kestrel chicks, 50% in barn owl chicks and 100% in adult barn owls, with multiple SGARs in both species. Prothrombin time analysis in barn owls revealed a positive correlation with blood ΣSGARs, suggesting a potential adverse effect on coagulation. Analysis of variables potentially influencing SGAR prevalence indicated that, for kestrels, it was only related to the extent of artificial surface, showing no differences across study sites. In owlets, the highest prevalence occurred in the most urbanized study site, with human population density being a key factor. This study highlights species-specific differences in SGAR exposure, likely influenced by ecological traits. Barn owls probably encounter contaminated prey near anthropized areas, with widespread SGAR use and higher presence of target rodents. Conversely, kestrels, hunting a variety of prey often near human settlements, face consistently elevated exposure from multiple sources. Understanding these variations is crucial for effective conservation and minimizing SGAR impact on non-target wildlife.

A survey of VKORC1 missense mutations in eleven Italian islands reveals widespread rodenticide resistance in house mice

To protect native wildlife, more than one hundred rodent eradications have been attempted in the Mediterranean islands by using anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs). Despite their high efficiency, resistance to ARs has been observed in many countries and it is mostly related to missense mutations (SNPs) in the VKORC1 gene. The presence of resistant individuals reduces the efficiency of rodent management, leading to an excessive use of ARs. Thus, the risk of poisoning in non-target species increases. In this study, the first survey of ARs resistance in the house mouse Mus domesticus covering multiple islands in the Mediterranean was performed. Tissue samples of eighty-two mice from eleven islands in Italy were analysed and eight missense SNPs were found. In addition to some well-known missense mutations, such as Tyr139Cys, six new missense SNPs for the house mouse were discovered, four of which were new even for any rodent species. Furthermore, the frequency of Tyr139Cys significantly increased in Ventotene Island after a four-year long rat eradication. This could be due to the selective pressure of ARs that allowed the mice carrying the mutation to survive. This study demonstrates once again the importance of assessing resistance to ARs before undertaking rodent eradications. Indeed, this would allow an informed decision of the most effective AR to use, maximizing the success rate of the eradications and minimizing secondary poisoning and other deleterious effects for non-target species and the environment.

Turkey Vultures (Cathartes aura) from Southern California are Exposed to Anticoagulant Rodenticides Despite Recent Bans

ABSTRACT Secondary poisoning with anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) has been identified as an important threat for raptor conservation worldwide. In 2019, the California State Legislature passed Assembly Bill 1788 (made effective in 2020), which prohibits or limits the use of second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) in the state, as a follow-up to the California Department of Pesticide Regulation’s ban on SGARS implemented in 2014. Currently, the adherence to these recent restrictions on ARs in southern California is unknown. To assess whether these bans prevented exposure of raptors and other wildlife to ARs, we investigated (1) the prevalence of exposure to eight different ARs in the blood of Turkey Vultures (Cathartes aura) before and after the 2019 ban, and (2) the distribution of resighted (encountered) wing-tagged Turkey Vultures included in this study to assess where exposure might occur. Of 27 Turkey Vultures tested for eight ARs, one out of 11 sampled in 2017 had detectable (trace) but not quantifiable levels of difethialone, and two out of 16 (12.5%) sampled in 2021 had detectable levels of diphacinone (one had 8 ppb; another indicated as positive without quantification). Overall, the prevalence of exposure to ARs was 11.1% (3 of 27), 7.4% for diphacinone and 3.7% for difethialone. Based on 93 resightings of 20 of the wing-tagged Turkey Vultures, all but one remained within the areas of Los Angeles, San Bernardino, Orange, Riverside, and San Diego Counties of southern California. Our study suggests that the exposure risk of Turkey Vultures to ARs persisted despite recent restrictions. Our small sample size and reliance on blood in live vultures rather than liver tissue in dead ones may be underestimating true ARs exposure in our study population. We propose a continued and integrated monitoring approach that includes measurements of ARs in both free-ranging (blood samples) and deceased (liver samples) Turkey Vultures for effective large-scale monitoring. This approach will assess compliance with current and future bans and regulations regarding the use of these poisons in California.

Widespread exposure to anticoagulant rodenticides among common urban mesopredators in Chicago

Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are currently the most common method to control rats in cities, but these compounds also cause morbidity and mortality in non-target wildlife. Little attention has been focused on AR exposure among mesopredators despite their ecological role as scavengers and prey for larger carnivores, thus serving as an important bridge in the biomagnification of rodenticides in food webs. In this study, we sampled liver tissue from raccoons (Procyon lotor; n = 37), skunks (Mephitis mephitis; n = 15), and Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana; n = 45) euthanized by pest professionals and brown rats (Rattus norvegicus; n = 101) trapped in alleys in Chicago, USA to evaluate how often these species are exposed to ARs. We tested whether mesopredators had a higher prevalence of ARs and to more AR compounds compared to rats and calculated biomagnification factors (mean concentration in mesopredators/rats) as indicators of biomagnification. Of 93 sampled mesopredators, 100 % were exposed to at least one AR compound, mainly brodifacoum (≥80 %), and 79 % were exposed to multiple AR compounds. We also documented teal stomach contents consistent with the consumption of rat bait and altricial young tested positive to the same AR as their mother, suggesting mammary transfer. Of the 101 rats, 74 % tested positive to at least one AR compound and 32 % were exposed to multiple AR compounds. All mesopredator species had biomagnification factors exceeding 1.00 for brodifacoum (6.57–29.07) and bromadiolone (1.08–4.31). Our results suggest widespread exposure to ARs among urban mesopredators and biomagnification of ARs in mesopredators compared to rats. Policies that limit AR availability to non-target species, such as restricting the sale and use of ARs to licensed professionals in indoor settings, education on alternatives, and more emphasis on waste management may reduce health risks for urban wildlife and people in cities around the world.

New redox behavior and electrochemical sensing of anticoagulant rodenticide bromadiolone using low‐cost graphite electrode: An ultrasensitive tool for forensic and environmental analysis

New redox behavior and electrochemical sensing of anticoagulant rodenticide bromadiolone using low‐cost graphite electrode: An ultrasensitive tool for forensic and environmental analysis

Delayed Symptoms of Rodenticide Poisoning in a 16-Year-Old: A Case Report

Anticoagulant rodenticides, a key tool in pest control since the 1940s, have undergone significant evolution to overcome resistance and improve efficacy. However, resistance in rodent populations led to the development of second-generation anticoagulants such as Brodifacoum and Difenacoum, which are more potent but pose increased risks to non-target species, including humans. This case report describes the management of a 16-year-old Iranian male who deliberately ingested a super warfarin rodenticide, resulting in severe coagulopathy and delayed clinical presentation. Despite the initial absence of overt symptoms, the patient’s condition required immediate intervention with intravenous vitamin K and blood products, demonstrating the complexity of diagnosing and managing rodenticide poisoning. Recovery was achieved with comprehensive medical and psychological interventions, demonstrating the need for high clinical suspicion and prompt treatment in similar cases. This report highlights the ongoing public health challenges posed by highly potent rodenticides and the critical need for awareness and preparedness among healthcare providers to effectively manage such emergencies.

Widespread use of anticoagulant rodenticides in agricultural and urban environments. A menace to the viability of the endangered Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata) populations

Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are one of the most toxic groups of compounds currently used worldwide for rodent pest control. Toxic baits are often, directly or indirectly, ingested by non-target animals, resulting in secondary poisoning and frequently affecting apex predators. Their presence in many species of raptors is quite common, particularly scavenger species, with some of these acting as sentinels for the presence of these substances in the environment. However, there is less data on the presence of ARs in Bonelli's eagle, one of the most endangered eagle species in Spain and which is experiencing a negative population trend in Europe. This medium-sized eagle feeds predominantly on live species, and rarely consumes carrion.In this study, 17 carcasses of Bonelli's eagles from the Eastern Spain were necropsied. Both first and second generation ARs in their livers were analyzed by HPLC-MS-TOF revealing that all the eagles studied had been exposed to at least 5 ARs, out of a total of 10 ARs analyzed, with 7 being the highest number of ARs detected in a sample. Second generation ARs were the most prevalent, particularly bromadiolone and brodifacoum, with the highest concentrations in 94% of the cases. More than a third of the eagles presented a liver concentration of greater than 200 ng/g ARs, suggesting AR poisoning.The elevated presence of these compounds in Bonelli's eagles could be a new cause of mortality for this species or could explain other causes of death, such as the increased mortality in power lines, and should be taken into account for their conservation. At the same time, the presence of these compounds in the environment also represents a risk to public health, as the most frequent species in the diet of Bonelli's eagle (rabbits and partridges) are also hunted and consumed by hunters and their families.

Rodenticide contamination of cormorants and mergansers feeding on wild fish

AbstractExposure of wildlife to anticoagulant rodenticides from sewer baiting and bait application is poorly understood. We analyzed residues of eight anticoagulant rodenticides in liver samples of 96 great cormorants, 29 common mergansers, various fish species, and coypu, in different German regions. Results show that hepatic residues of anticoagulant rodenticides were found in almost half of the investigated cormorants and mergansers due to the uptake of contaminated fish from effluent-receiving surface waters. By contrast, exposure of coypu to rodenticides via aquatic emissions was not observed. The maximum total hepatic anticoagulant rodenticide concentration measured in waterfowl specimens was 35 ng per g based on liver wet weight. Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticide active ingredients brodifacoum, difenacoum, and bromadiolone were detected almost exclusively, reflecting their estimated market share in Germany and their continuing release into the aquatic compartment. Overall, our findings reveal that second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides accumulating in wild fish are transferred to piscivorous predators via the aquatic food chain.

Unveiling the potency of ready-to-use brodifacoum blocks in lesser bandicoot rats: exploring toxicity, blood clotting factors, and organ histology.

The present study unveiled the effectiveness of ready-to-use brodifacoum blocks (0.005%) against the prevalent field rat species in southeast Asia, Bandicota bengalensis. Brodifacoum, a more potent second-generation anticoagulant, offers a solution for managing rodents resistant to other anticoagulants of its class. Male and female bandicoot rats caught wild were exposed to brodifacoum for 1, 2, and 3days in both the no-choice and bi-choice tests. The observations included mortality rates, impact on body weight, food consumption, blood clotting factors, organ weights, and histological changes. Results indicated 100% mortality within 2-3days in the no-choice tests, and 50.00%-83.33% mortality in the bi-choice tests within 5 to 8days. The median lethal feeding periods were determined to be 2.10 and 2.33days for male and female rats, respectively. Toxicity symptoms included bleeding from the nose, gums, and feet. While no significant effects were observed on body weight or organ weights, food consumption decreased notably in no-choice tests. Additionally, significant increases in prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time were noted 24h post-treatment in the no-choice tests, with post-treatment international normalized ratios of 9.45-14.20 and 1.52-3.03 in the no-choice and the bi-choice tests, respectively. Histological analysis revealed mild to severe necrotic changes in the liver and kidneys after brodifacoum treatment. Overall, this study underscores the potential of ready-to-use brodifacoum blocks as an effective tool for rodent population control, offering a viable alternative to other second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides.

Anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in common buzzards: Impact of new rules for rodenticide use

Rodenticides are a key component of rodent management strategies, but birds of prey are susceptible to non-target exposure. New rules on sale and use of rodenticide products were introduced across the UK in 2016 in an industry-led stewardship scheme, with the aim of reducing this risk. To determine if this intervention has achieved its aim, exposure to second generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) was measured in buzzards. Liver samples from 790 buzzards collected between 2005 and 2022 (excluding 2016 and 2017 samples) were analyzed and the percentage presence and concentrations of SGARs from pre-stewardship and post-stewardship samples were compared.There was no statistically significant decrease in the percentage of buzzards exposed to bromadiolone, difenacoum or combined SGAR residues after the introduction of stewardship. The percentage of buzzards exposed to brodifacoum increased significantly post-stewardship, from 8 % to 27 %. There were no significant decreases in the concentrations of individual SGARs post-stewardship but concentration of combined SGARs increased significantly post-stewardship. Individual buzzards were significantly more likely to be exposed to multiple SGARs post-stewardship.Rodenticide poisoning was recorded as the cause of death for 5 % of pre- and post-stewardship buzzards with detectable levels of SGARs, and 90 % of these had combined SGAR residues >0.1 mg/kg.These findings suggest that the industry-led stewardship scheme has not yet had the intended impact of reducing SGAR exposure in non-target wildlife. The study highlights a substantial increase in exposure of buzzards to brodifacoum and to multiple SGARs post-stewardship, indicating that further changes to the stewardship scheme may be necessary.

Abdominal radiographic features of anticoagulant rodenticide toxicity in 14 dogs and 2 cats.

Anticoagulant rodenticide toxicity is commonly encountered in veterinary practice that can result in internal bleeding. We have observed dogs with retroperitoneal hemorrhage secondary to anticoagulant rodenticide toxicity. However, abdominal radiographic changes in dogs with rodenticide toxicity have not been studied and retroperitoneal hemorrhage secondary to rodenticide toxicity has rarely been reported. The objective is to describe abdominal radiographic features of anticoagulant rodenticide toxicity and concurrent thoracic radiographic changes in dogs and cats. Dogs and cats diagnosed with rodenticide toxicity and with available abdominal radiographs were included in this retrospective analysis. Board-certified radiologists reviewed the abdominal and thoracic radiographs. Evaluation of abdominal radiographic changes included assessment of peritoneal or retroperitoneal effusion, subcutaneous hemorrhage, and internal hemorrhage of abdominal organs. Fourteen dogs and two cats with confirmed rodenticide toxicity were included in the study. In dogs, retroperitoneal effusion (28.6%) was the most commonly observed abdominal radiographic change, followed by peritoneal effusion (14.3%). Thoracic radiographic changes in dogs included pleural effusion (63.6%) and mediastinal widening (63.6%) as the most common findings, followed by pulmonary hemorrhage (36.4%) and tracheal narrowing (36.4%). Subcutaneous hemorrhage or edema (9.1%) was also noted. No abdominal radiographic changes consistent with hemorrhage secondary to rodenticide toxicity were noted in the two cats. Based on our findings, it is suggested that rodenticide toxicity may result in retroperitoneal effusion even in the absence of thoracic disease. Therefore, abdominal radiographs may be valuable when suspecting hemorrhage due to coagulopathy. However, abdominal radiographic changes associated with rodenticide toxicity are considered rare in cats.

The missing toxic link: Exposure of non-target native marsupials to second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) suggest a potential route of transfer into apex predators

Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are used globally to control rodent pests. Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) persist in the liver and pose a significant risk of bioaccumulation and secondary poisoning in predators, including species that do not generally consume rodents. As such, there is a clear need to understand the consumption of ARs, particularly SGARs, by non-target consumers to determine the movement of these anticoagulants through ecosystems. We collected and analysed the livers from deceased common brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) and common ringtail possums (Pseudocheirus peregrinus), native Australian marsupials that constitute the main diet of the powerful owl (Ninox strenua), an Australian apex predator significantly exposed to SGAR poisoning. ARs were detected in 91 % of brushtail possums and 40 % of ringtail possums. Most of the detections were attributed to SGARs, while first-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (FGARs) were rarely detected. SGAR concentrations were likely lethal or toxic in 42 % of brushtail possums and 4 % of ringtail possums with no effect of age, sex, or weight detected in either species. There was also no effect of the landscape type possums were from, suggesting SGAR exposure is ubiquitous across landscapes. The rate of exposure detected in these possums provides insight into the pathway through which ARs are transferred to one of their key predators, the powerful owl. With SGARs entering food-webs through non-target species, the potential for bioaccumulation and broader secondary poisoning of predators is significantly greater and highlights an urgent need for routine rodenticide testing in non-target consumers that present as ill or found deceased. To limit their impact on ecosystem stability the use of SGARs should be significantly regulated by governing agencies.

Anticoagulant rodenticide intoxication in a dog with pericardial effusion and a heart base mass‐like effect

AbstractA 4‐year‐old American Pitbull terrier presented for acute onset of a honking cough, vomiting and anorexia. Thoracic radiographs revealed tracheal narrowing consistent with a mass effect or tracheal collapse. The dog was hospitalised but acutely developed respiratory distress, syncope and pale mucous membranes. Moderate pleural effusion and a heart base mass were noted on echocardiographic examination as well as evidence of cardiac tamponade. Coagulation times were severely prolonged. After additional discussion with the owners, rodenticide exposure was considered possible. The owners elected humane euthanasia. A necropsy revealed gross evidence of intrathoracic haemorrhage and a heart base mass consistent with a haematoma. There was no evidence of neoplasia on histopathological evaluation of the tissues. A final diagnosis of rodenticide intoxication was made. This case report demonstrates the importance of considering anticoagulant rodenticide intoxication in patients with a history of pericardial effusion. It is also important to consider a haematoma as a differential diagnosis when a heart‐associated mass is visualised in patients with pericardial effusion.