Antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter Research Articles

Genetic Diversity, Virulence, and Antibiotic Resistance Determinants of Campylobacter jejuni Isolates in Romania.

The emergence of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter jejuni, a leading cause of gastroenteritis worldwide, presents a significant public health challenge requiring vigilant surveillance and disease control. This study aimed to characterize C. jejuni strains isolated in Romania from 2017 to 2020, focusing on genetic diversity, virulence, and antibiotic resistance determinants. The isolates underwent phenotypical testing, PCR, and antibiotic resistance assessment using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method for ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, and tetracycline. Genetic analysis identified resistance and virulence genes, point mutations, and performed sequence typing (7-gene MLST) to determine genetic relatedness. Results indicated substitutions at position 86 in the amino acid sequence or position 257 in the nucleotide sequence of the gyrA gene in 47 fluoroquinolone-resistant isolates. Additionally, mutations in the rRNA 23S gene at positions 2074 and 2075, associated with macrolide resistance, were found in 12 of the 66 isolates. Allelic profiles generated 38 sequence types (STs), including three new STs not present in the reference database. The sequence data analysis revealed a genetically diverse C. jejuni population with a weak clonal structure. This study provides crucial insights into the genetic diversity and antibiotic resistance of C. jejuni strains in Romania, highlighting the need for ongoing surveillance and control measures.

Evaluation of the Antibacterial Activity of Isatin against Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli Strains

Antibiotic resistance, particularly against fluoroquinolones and macrolides, has emerged globally among thermophilic Campylobacters (Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli), giving rise to concerns about the efficacy of antibiotic treatment of these bacteria. Thus, developing new antibacterials with excellent activity is important. Isatin (IST) and its derivatives have exhibited promising antibacterial activities in several pathogenic bacteria. However, its activity against Campylobacter is unknown. Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the antibacterial activity of isatin against 29-Campylobacter strains (C. jejuni-17 and C. coli-12) and investigate the effects at the cellular level. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of isatin were between <1.0 and 16.0 µg/mL in Campylobacter strains. Most strains presented with MIC = 8.0 µg/mL (76%). The minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) was determined to be 16.0 µg/mL for 72% of the Campylobacter strains tested. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) value for isatin was 125.63 µg/mL on the MRC-5 normal cell line, suggesting that isatin can be considered a safe substance in terms of cytotoxicity. In this study, we demonstrated the potential of isatin based on its low toxicity and effectiveness in vitro against antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter strains, which indicates that this compound could be an attractive candidate for future use in multidrug-resistant Campylobacter treatment.

Structural basis of DNA recognition of the Campylobacter jejuni CosR regulator.

Campylobacter jejuni has emerged as an antibiotic-resistant threat worldwide. CosR is an essential regulator for this bacterium and is important for Campylobacter adaptation to various stresses. Here, we describe the structural basis of CosR binding to target DNA as determined by cryo-electron microscopy and X-ray crystallography. Since CosR is a potential target for intervention, our studies may facilitate the development of novel therapeutics to combat C. jejuni infection.

Whole Genome Sequences, De Novo Assembly, and Annotation of Antibiotic Resistant Campylobacter jejuni Strains S27, S33, and S36 Newly Isolated from Chicken Meat.

Campylobacter is a leading bacterial cause of gastrointestinal infections in humans and has imposed substantial medical and public health burdens worldwide. Among a total of 39 species in the Campylobacter genus, C. jejuni is the most important species responsible for approx. 90% of human Campylobacter illness. Most cases of the infection were acquired by ingesting undercooked poultry meat due to the high prevalence of Campylobacter in the products. Here, we reported the dataset of raw sequences, de novo assembled and annotated genomes of C. jejuni strains S27, S33, and S36 recently isolated from retail chicken by using PacBio highly accurate long-read sequencing technology combined with bioinformatics tools. Our data revealed several virulence and antibiotic resistance genes in each of the chromosomes, a type IV secretion system in the plasmid (pCjS33) of C. jejuni S33, and a type VI secretion system and a phage in the plasmid (pCjS36) of C. jejuni S36. This study not only provides new sequence data but also extends the knowledge pertaining to the genomic and functional aspects of this important foodborne pathogen, including the genetic determinants of virulence and antibiotic resistance.

Prevalencia y resistencia antimicrobiana de Campylobacter jejuni y Campylobacter coli en pollos parrilleros de una planta frigorífica en Paraguay

Campylobacteriosis is one of the main zoonotic diseases transmitted by food, especially chicken meat and derivatives which represent an important transmission source for humans. This research aimed to verify prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in broiler chickens Cobb 500TM obtained from a slaughterhouse in Paraguay. 300 cloacal swabs samples were randomly collected, then subjected to microbiological analysis and subsequent PCR bacterial confirmation. Antimicrobial susceptibility to ciprofloxacin and erythromycin was determined by the E-test®. Campylobacter spp. prevalence was 63.6%, 97.3% corresponding to C. jejuni and 2.6% to C. coli. Resistance to ciprofloxacin was 89.8% for C. jejuni and 100% for C. coli. Resistance to erythromycin was found only in one strain of C. jejuni (0.5%). High resistance to ciprofloxacin and high prevalence of C. jejuni, were confirmed. This research describes public health risk of consumption of chicken meat contaminated with antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter species. The results indicate the need to implement health control measures regarding the antibiotic treatments in poultry production. This research represents the first scientific report that reveals antimicrobial prevalence and resistance of C. jejuni and C. coli in commercial broiler chickens in Paraguay.

Genetic characteristics, antimicrobial susceptibility, and virulence genes distribution of Campylobacter isolated from local dual-purpose chickens in central China.

Food-borne antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter poses a serious threat to public health. To understand the prevalence and genetic characteristics of Campylobacter in Chinese local dual-purpose (meat and eggs) chickens, the genomes of 30 Campylobacter isolates, including 13C. jejuni and 17C. coli from Jianghan-chickens in central China, were sequenced and tested for antibiotic susceptibility. The results showed that CC-354 and CC-828 were the dominant clonal complexes of C. jejuni and C. coli, respectively, and a phylogenetic analysis showed that three unclassified multilocus sequence types of C. coli were more closely genetically related to C. jejuni than to other C. coli in this study. Of the six antibiotics tested, the highest resistance rates were to ciprofloxacin and tetracycline (100%), followed by lincomycin (63.3%), erythromycin (30.0%), amikacin (26.7%), and cefotaxime (20.0%). The antibiotic resistance rate of C. coli was higher than that of C. jejuni. The GyrA T86I mutation and 15 acquired resistance genes were detected with whole-genome sequencing (WGS). Among those, the GyrA T86I mutation and tet(O) were most prevalent (both 96.7%), followed by the blaOXA-type gene (90.0%), ant(6)-Ia (26.7%), aac(6')-aph(3'') (23.3%), erm(B) (13.3%), and other genes (3.3%). The ciprofloxacin and tetracycline resistance phenotypes correlated strongly with the GyrA T86I mutation and tet(O)/tet(L), respectively, but for other antibiotics, the correlation between genes and resistance phenotypes were weak, indicating that there may be resistance mechanisms other than the resistance genes detected in this study. Virulence gene analysis showed that several genes related to adhesion, colonization, and invasion (including cadF, porA, ciaB, and jlpA) and cytolethal distending toxin (cdtABC) were only present in C. jejuni. Overall, this study extends our knowledge of the epidemiology and antibiotic resistance of Campylobacter in local Chinese dual-purpose chickens.

Antibiotic Resistance in Campylobacter: A Systematic Review of South American Isolates

In recent years, Campylobacter has become increasingly resistant to antibiotics, especially those first-choice drugs used to treat campylobacteriosis. Studies in South America have reported cases of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter in several countries, mainly in Brazil. To understand the current frequency of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter in humans, farm animals, and food of animal origin in South America, we systematically searched for different studies that have reported Campylobacter resistance. The most commonly reported species were C. jejuni and C. coli. Resistance to ciprofloxacin was found to be ubiquitous in the isolates. Nalidixic acid and tetracycline showed a significantly expressed resistance. Erythromycin, the antibiotic of first choice for the treatment of campylobacteriosis, showed a low rate of resistance in isolates but was detected in almost all countries. The main sources of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter isolates were food of animal origin and farm animals. The results demonstrate that resistant Campylobacter isolates are disseminated from multiple sources linked to animal production in South America. The level of resistance that was identified may compromise the treatment of campylobacteriosis in human and animal populations. In this way, we are here showing all South American communities the need for the constant surveillance of Campylobacter resistance and the need for the strategic use of antibiotics in animal production. These actions are likely to decrease future difficulties in the treatment of human campylobacteriosis.

A Review on Significance of Public Health Issues Related to Poultry Campylobacteriosis

The goal of poultry industry worldwide is the production of safe food products, via efficient and goal-oriented health care to prevent the development of disease conditions in poultry. However, a several number of poultry diseases can negatively affects the breeding values and have the potential to be zoonotic and transmit the infections to humans such as campylobacteriosis. C. jejuni is highly prevalent in commercial poultry farms and act as major reservoirs of the infection. Horizontal transmission from the environment is considered to be the primary source of bacterial foodborne worldwide. The high prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in poultry meat is a result of several contamination and cross-contamination sources in the entire production chain. Recent investigations demonstrated that various stages of food processing in slaughterhouse and consumption of raw or undercooked poultry meat is considered the significant risk factor for human campylobacteriosis worldwide. Furthermore, survival factors such as biofilm formation and antimicrobial resistance, enable its persistence during food processing. On the other hand, the increase of multiple and multidrug-resistant Campylobacter worldwide is not only related to the over-consumption of antibiotics in human medicine, but also in poultry production chain as growth promotors and/or to treat and prevent bacterial infections. Antibiotic resistant Campylobacter presents an obvious and impending challenge to One Health. In the future, the consumer expectations for high standards quality of poultry products will strongly influence the production methods. This means that farmers, stockholders’, veterinarians, and all other partners involved in the production chain, will have to share more responsibilities and the cooperation should be intensified. This review represents an updated overview of the global epidemiology, the correlation of official control, the disease associated with food handler and the importance of food safety with respect to Campylobacteriosis.

Olive Leaf as a Source of Antibacterial Compounds Active against Antibiotic-Resistant Strains of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli.

Campylobacter spp. are the main cause of bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide, and broiler chicks are the main vector of transmission to humans. The high prevalence of Campylobacter in poultry meat and the increase of antibiotic resistant strains have raised the need to identify new antimicrobial agents. For this reason, the aim of the current study was to evaluate the antibacterial activity of two extracts of olive leaf against antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter strains (C. jejuni and C. coli) isolated from poultry food chain. The extracts of olive leaf (E1 and E2) were markedly different in their chemical compositions. While E1 was composed predominantly of highly hydrophilic compounds such as hydroxytyrosol and hydroxytyrosol glucosides (14,708 mg/100 g), E2 mainly contained moderately hydrophilic compounds, with oleuropein (20,471 mg/100 g) being prevalent. All Campylobacter strains exhibited similar antibiotic profiles, being resistant to ciprofloxacin and tetracycline. E1 showed strong antibacterial activity and reduced bacterial growth from 4.12 to 8.14 log CFU/mL, depending on the strain. Hydroxytyrosol was the main compound responsible, causing the inhibition of growth of Campylobacter strains at low concentrations (0.1-0.25 mg/mL). E2 demonstrated a lower antibacterial effect than E1, reducing growth from 0.52 to 2.49 log CFU/mL. The results of this study suggest that the optimization of the composition of olive-leaf extracts can provide improved treatment results against Campylobacter strains.

A review of antibiotic resistance among Campylobacter species in human, animal, and water sources in South Africa: a One Health Approach.

Campylobacter species are among the aetiological agents responsible for 400-500 million human diarrhoea cases per annum. The risk of dissemination of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter species between humans, animals, and the environment is anticipated, given its transmissibility through these sources. The objective of this paper is to present a situation analysis that reports the current patterns and determinants of Campylobacter antibiotic resistance in South Africa. This review applies the One Health (OH) Approach to systematically review and collate the current antibiotic resistance status among Campylobacter spp. in South Africa. The highest level of resistance of Campylobacter in humans is to azithromycin (69.7%), whereas the lowest level of resistance of Campylobacter is to gatifloxacin (8.3%). In animals, high resistance to common antibiotics erythromycin (95.06%), clindamycin (95.68%), doxycycline (87.65%), erythromycin (90%), tetracycline (84.3%), streptomycin (88%), and ampicillin (73%) while 100% resistance of Campylobacter from water samples to tetracycline, imipenem, is recorded. Furthermore, resistance to clarithromycin (95%), azithromycin (92%), clindamycin (84.2%), doxycycline (80%), and ciprofloxacin (77.8%) is reported among Campylobacter spp. from water samples. The genetic similarity results suggest the movement of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter spp. between humans and the environment. More research on antibiotic resistance among Campylobacter from other sources, outside clinical isolates, is recommended.

Antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter coli and Campylobacter jejuni in commercial and smallholder farm animals in the Asante Akim North Municipality of Ghana.

Worldwide, farm animals, in particular poultry, are an important reservoir for Campylobacter spp. However, information on Campylobacter colonization in farm animals in Africa is scarce. Hence, this cross-sectional study determined antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter from both commercial and smallholder farm animals in the Asante Akim North Municipality of Ghana. Fecal samples from poultry and livestock kept by commercial and smallholder farms were collected and analyzed using standard microbiological methods. The overall Campylobacter frequency was 20.3% (n/N = 322/1,585), and frequencies detected were similarly high in isolates from commercial (21.0%, n/N = 169/805) and smallholder (19.6%, n/N = 153/780) farms. Species isolated were C. coli (67.7%, n/N = 218/322) and C. jejuni (32.3%, n/N = 104/322). However, the frequency of C. coli was 2.1 (95% CI: 1.8-2.5) times higher than what was found for C. jejuni. Campylobacter frequencies in the rainy season was 22.2% (n/N = 258/1,160) and 15.1% (n/N = 64/425) in the dry season (prevalence ratio = 1.48, 95% CI: 1.2-1.9). About 1.7% (n/N = 6/322) of the Campylobacter isolates, all from smallholder farms, were susceptible to all antibiotics tested. Multidrug resistance was observed for 4.7% (n/N = 15/322) of the Campylobacter isolates, of which 93.3% (n/N = 14/15) occurred in isolates from commercial farms. This study highlights the need for the implementation of control programs, in commercial farming but also at the smallholder farm level, to formulate clear guidelines aimed at decreasing Campylobacter contamination of meat products and reducing the use of antibiotics in the farming sector.

Effect of Probiotic E. coli Nissle 1917 Supplementation on the Growth Performance, Immune Responses, Intestinal Morphology, and Gut Microbes of Campylobacter jejuni Infected Chickens.

ABSTRACTCampylobacter jejuni is the most common cause of bacterial foodborne gastroenteritis and holds significant public health importance. The continuing increase of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter necessitates the development of antibiotic-alternative approaches to control infections in poultry and in humans. Here, we assessed the ability of E. coli Nissle 1917 (EcN; free and chitosan-alginate microencapsulated) to reduce C. jejuni colonization in chickens and measured the effect of EcN on the immune responses, intestinal morphology, and gut microbes of chickens. Our results showed that the supplementation of 3-week-old chickens daily with free EcN in drinking water resulted in a 2.0 log reduction of C. jejuni colonization in the cecum, whereas supplementing EcN orally three times a week, either free or microencapsulated, resulted in 2.0 and 2.5 log reductions of C. jejuni colonization, respectively. Gavaged free and microencapsulated EcN did not have an impact on the evenness or the richness of the cecal microbiota, but it did increase the villous height (VH), crypt depth (CD), and VH:CD ratio in the jejunum and ileum of chickens. Further, the supplementation of EcN (all types) increased C. jejuni-specific and total IgA and IgY antibodies in chicken’s serum. Microencapsulated EcN induced the expression of several cytokines and chemokines (1.6 to 4.3-fold), which activate the Th1, Th2, and Th17 pathways. Overall, microencapsulated EcN displayed promising effects as a potential nonantibiotic strategy to control C. jejuni colonization in chickens. Future studies on testing microencapsulated EcN in the feed and water of chickens raised on built-up floor litter would facilitate the development of EcN for industrial applications to control Campylobacter infections in poultry.

Withdrawal of antibiotic growth promoters in China and its impact on the foodborne pathogen Campylobacter coli of swine origin.

Antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) have been used as feed additives to improve feed efficiency in food animals for more than six decades. However, the wide use of AGPs has led to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens of animal origin, posing a significant threat to food safety and public health. China prohibited the addition of AGPs to animal feed from July 2020. The impacts caused by the withdrawal of AGPs on the prevalence and antibiotic resistance of foodborne pathogens have not been illustrated. Here, a total of 471 strains of Campylobacter were isolated from pigs from three pig farms and two slaughterhouses in Sichuan Province for 4 consecutive years (2018–2021), including 2 years before and 2 years after the ban on AGPs in China. The isolation rate of Campylobacter had a slight increase after prohibiting the addition of AGPs to the feed. Contrary to what we expected, the antibiotic susceptibility test and WGS data showed that the antibiotic resistance to gentamicin and florfenicol and the abundance of virulence genes increased significantly after the ban of AGPs. Comparison of the isolates of swine origin with isolates of human origin indicated the potential of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter transmission from pigs to humans. These data suggested that phasing out AGPs may lead to increased use of therapeutic antimicrobials, promoting the prevalence and transmission of both antibiotic resistance and virulence genes.

Occurrence and Multidrug Resistance of Campylobacter in Chicken Meat from Different Production Systems.

Campylobacter is the leading bacterial cause of diarrheal disease worldwide and poultry remains the primary vehicle of its transmission to humans. Due to the rapid increase in antibiotic resistance among Campylobacter strains, the World Health Organization (WHO) added Campylobacter fluoroquinolone resistance to the WHO list of antibiotic-resistant “priority pathogens”. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence and antibiotic resistance of Campylobacter spp. in meat samples from chickens reared in different production systems: (a) conventional, (b) free-range and (c) backyard farming. Campylobacter spp. was detected in all samples from conventionally reared and free-range broilers and in 72.7% of backyard chicken samples. Levels of contamination were on average 2.7 × 103 colony forming units (CFU)/g, 4.4 × 102 CFU/g and 4.2 × 104 CFU/g in conventionally reared, free-range and backyard chickens, respectively. Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli were the only species isolated. Distribution of these species does not seem to be affected by the production system. The overall prevalence of Campylobacter isolates exhibiting resistance to at least one antimicrobial was 98.4%. All the C. coli isolates showed resistance to ciprofloxacin and to nalidixic acid, and 79.5 and 97.4% to ampicillin and tetracycline, respectively. In total, 96.2% of C. jejuni isolates displayed a resistant phenotype to ciprofloxacin and to nalidixic acid, and 92.3% to ampicillin and tetracycline. Of the 130 Campylobacter isolates tested, 97.7% were classified as multidrug resistant (MDR).

Mining therapeutic targets from the antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter coli and virtual screening of natural product inhibitors against its riboflavin synthase.

Campylobacter coli resides in the intestine of several commonly consumed animals, as well as water and soil. It leads to campylobacteriosis when humans eat raw/undercooked meat or come into contact with infected animals. A common manifestation of the infection is fever, nausea, headache, and diarrhea. Increasing antibiotic resistance is being observed in this pathogen. The increased incidence ofC. coli infection, and post-infection complications like Guillain-Barré syndrome, make it an important pathogen. It is essential to find novel therapeutic targets and drugs against it, especially with the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains. In the current study, genomes of 89 antibiotic-resistant strains ofC. coliwere downloaded from the PATRIC database. Potent drug targets (n = 36) were prioritized from the core genome (n = 1,337 genes) of this species. Riboflavin synthase was selected as a drug target and pharmacophore-based virtual screening was performed to predict its inhibitors from the NPASS (n = ~ 30,000 compounds) natural product library. The top three docked compounds (NPC115144, NPC307895, and NPC470462) were selected for dynamics simulation (for 50ns) and ADMET profiling. These identified compounds appear safe for targeting this pathogen and can be further validated by experimental analysis before clinical trials.

The Role of Antimicrobial Peptides as Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Agents in Tackling the Silent Pandemic of Antimicrobial Resistance.

Just over a million people died globally in 2019 due to antibiotic resistance caused by ESKAPE pathogens (Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter species). The World Health Organization (WHO) also lists antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter and Helicobacter as bacteria that pose the greatest threat to human health. As it is becoming increasingly difficult to discover new antibiotics, new alternatives are needed to solve the crisis of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Bacteria commonly found in complex communities enclosed within self-produced matrices called biofilms are difficult to eradicate and develop increased stress and antimicrobial tolerance. This review summarises the role of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in combating the silent pandemic of AMR and their application in clinical medicine, focusing on both the advantages and disadvantages of AMPs as antibiofilm agents. It is known that many AMPs display broad-spectrum antimicrobial activities, but in a variety of organisms AMPs are not stable (short half-life) or have some toxic side effects. Hence, it is also important to develop new AMP analogues for their potential use as drug candidates. The use of one health approach along with developing novel therapies using phages and breakthroughs in novel antimicrobial peptide synthesis can help us in tackling the problem of AMR.

Campylobacter Express Resistance Array for detecting the presence of fluoroquinolone- and macrolide-resistant Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in broiler farms.

The aim of the study was to develop a microarray-based method for the detection of antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter in broiler farms to decrease the risk of contamination of chicken meat. A combination of DNA microarray and primer extension for rapid and simultaneous detection of fluoroquinolone- and macrolide-resistant Campylobacter jejuni/Campylobacter coli, termed Campylobacter Express Resistance Array (CAMERA), was used to analyse chicken caecal droppings. CAMERA assays could detect at least 105 colony forming units of C. jejuni/C. coli g-1 of chicken caecal contents spiked with C. jejuni/C. coli. To compare the CAMERA method and direct culturing method for screening antibiotic-resistant C. jejuni/C. coli in poultry farms, chicken caecal droppings obtained from 42 poultry houses were analysed using both methods. In total, 95.2% of the results (40/42 poultry houses) obtained using the CAMERA and culturing method were identical. In the remaining two poultry houses, the CAMERA could detect the prevalent strain of C. jejuni/C. coli based on results of the culturing method. The culturing method required >3days to isolate and identify antibiotic-resistant C. jejuni/C. coli. In contrast, the CAMERA required only 6h. This method can facilitate quick screening and control of fluoroquinolone- and macrolide-resistant C. jejuni/C. coli in broiler farms.

The Role of Efflux Pumps in the Antibiotic Resistance of Campylobacter spp. Isolated From Domestic Animals and Poultry

Background: Recently, the rate of antibiotic resistance of Campylobacter has been reported to be increasing and the mechanism of this resistance has been reported to be related to the activity of efflux pumps. The purpose of this study was to isolate Campylobacter strains from domestic animals such as poultry and cows and evaluate the role of efflux pumps in antibiotic resistance property of them. Methods: A total of 300 fecal samples were collected from poultry and cows and subjected to isolation of Campylobacter by preT-KB method. The isolates were identified and confirmed by phenotypic and genotypic methods and their antibiotic susceptibility was evaluated using the disk diffusion method. Efflux pump activity in the isolates was assessed by EtBr-agar cartwheel method and the presence of efflux pump cmeABC was evaluated in all isolates. Finally, the correlation between efflux pump activity and antibiotic resistance was evaluated in the isolates using inhibition of efflux pump activity of Phe-Arg β-naphthylamide. Results: Of all samples, 10 (3.3%) Campylobacter strains were isolated. Seven (70%) and three (30%) strains were isolated from poultry and cows, respectively. Of all isolates, 9 belonged to Campylobacter jejuni and 1 belonged to Campylobacter coli. The isolates were resistant to three antibiotics, namely Ciprofloxacin, Ceftriaxone, and Cefotaxime. Efflux pump activity was observed in all isolates; however, cmeABC genes were not present in all of them. In addition, resistance to Erythromycin and Ciprofloxacin was associated with efflux pump activity. Conclusions: All Campylobacter isolates in the current study showed antibiotic resistance and the activity of efflux pumps could induce antibiotic resistance and decrease the antibacterial activity of many drug families in Campylobacter. In addition, the activity of efflux pumps can be considered a mechanism of antibiotic resistance and elimination of this activity might increase the effectiveness of antibiotics.

Antimicrobial Resistance and Antibiogram of Thermotolerant Campylobacter Recovered from Poultry Meat in Baghdad Markets, Iraq.

Antimicrobial resistance is a critical public health issue that affects people all over the world. Since bacteria have a proclivity for rapidly acquiring and propagating the resistance gene, antimicrobial-resistant Campylobacter has a negative impact on public health. As a result, the creation of new and highly pathogenic clones is facilitated, making antimicrobial treatment more challenging. This study aimed to determine the antimicrobial resistance pattern (ARP) models, multiple drug resistance (MDR) models, and multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) index of Campylobacter species isolated from poultry meat sold in Baghdad markets, Iraq. By employing the disc diffusion test, 30 Campylobacter strains from chicken meat, including C. jejuni (n=10) and C. coli (n=20), were exposed to tetracycline (TET), erythromycin, Gentamicin, nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, and norfloxacin (NOR). The ARP of the Campylobacter isolates revealed up to five antibiotypes for two species, which revealed resistance to one or more antimicrobials, and 67% of them had MDR resistance to two or more experienced antimicrobials. The NOR-TET model is the most common MDR, having a prevalence of 30% among experienced isolates. In addition, the MAR index, equal to and lower than one, was found in 87% of the isolates. Antibiotic resistance in Campylobacter raises the probability of treatment failure in humans and animals, as well as the propagation of antimicrobial resistance genes. As a result, the presence of Campylobacter in meat could pose a risk of human infection and pollution of the environment.

Epidemiologic characteristics of <i>Campylobacter</i> infections in high-income countries: a systematic review

Introduction. The Campylobacter is the most common bacterial cause of foodborne illnesses in high-income countries. In contrast to other infectious diseases, the number of Campylobacter cases has increased in developed countries over the last ten years. A systematic review has been conducted to identify the factors contributing to incidence of Campylobacter infection in developed countries and to estimate it by age, sex, geography, and season.Materials and methods. The review was limited to studies published in English from 2010-2021; eight nationwide surveillance and register-based cohort studies, which met the selection criteria, were included in the review.Results. While the highest incidence of Campylobacter infection was reported among young children living in rural areas, the highest number of Campylobacter cases among adults was recorded in urban settings. Nevertheless, population-wise, children and older adults are most affected, while the incidence rates are higher in males than in females, with cases peaking every summer.Conclusion. Campylobacter infection is a public health concern in high-income countries, being difficult to eradicate and having become an urgent challenge to the existing well-developed surveillance systems. Additionally, the threat of antibiotic resistance in Campylobacter is growing at an alarming rate. The reasons behind Campylobacter affecting more men than women as well as the age and geographic distribution of the infection still need thorough research.