Anti-doping Rules Research Articles

Electrochemical detection of triamterene in human urine using boron-doped diamond electrodes

Urine is one of the most used biological fluids for screening drug delivery and the resultant metabolites. In sports, the use of diuretics such as triamterene is considered a violation of anti-doping rules and is stipulated to be present at less than 79 nM in urine by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). It is therefore important to develop effective rapid and low-cost tests for this diuretic. Here we apply electrochemical analysis using boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes, which have superior properties such as low background current, a wide potential window, and high resistance to deactivation. Since real urine samples show clear oxidation current peaks in the potential range more positive than 0.5 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) due to the presence of bio-components such as protein, uric acid, and ascorbic acid, to detect triamterene effectively, the electrochemical protocol was optimized towards a potential range where the other components have limited effect. Our results show that reduced triamterene exhibits an oxidation peak at 0.1 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (PB) and at 0.2 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) in pooled human urine. The peak current value increased according to the triamterene concentration. The limit of detection (LOD) was 3.15 nM in the PB and 7.80 nM in pooled human urine. Finally, triamterene detection was attempted in individual urine samples. Triamterene was electrochemically detectable in individual urine samples, excluding urine samples containing an excess amount of ascorbic acid. The limit of detection (LOD) in individual urine samples was determined to be 20.8 nM.

The role of personal commitment to integrity in clean sport and anti-doping

BackgroundDespite widespread reference to protecting ‘clean sport’ and the rights of ‘clean athletes’ in anti-doping, to date very little attention has been paid to athletes who are, in majority, committed to clean sport. Understanding elite athletes’ conceptions of ‘clean sport’ and integrity, the psychosocial factors related specifically to athletes’ commitment to personal integrity and clean sport behaviour (as opposed to factors influencing anti-doping rule-breaking) provides a crucial, but currently missing, piece for anti-doping education. MethodsDrawing upon two complimentary theories (the Incremental Model of Doping Behaviour, and Personal Integrity) for coding frame, we employed a qualitative secondary analysis (QSA) approach to re-analyse in-depth life-story interviews of 14 elite athletes (9 males/5 females) from Germany, Italy, and the UK, representing 11 sports across high (n = 8), medium (n = 3) and low risk (n = 3) categories for doping. Interview data were originally collected for the SAFE YOU+ project to underpin illustrative case studies produced as educational material. QSA was conducted on this evidence within the constructivist research paradigm using thematic analysis through adductive reasoning. ResultsElite athletes' conceptions of clean sport and commitment to personal integrity presented on a continuum from a strict position to use no substances at all through to the carefully calibrated use of non-prohibited substances/methods for the purpose of enhancing performance. There was a clear distinction between commitment to clean sport and anti-doping. Factors that threaten elite athletes’ personal commitment to clean sport, and thus could push them towards doping included intrinsic concerns (medical, financial, performance), perceptions of legitimacy in the anti-doping system, descriptive doping norms and identity. Factors that may help athletes build and maintain personal commitment to clean sport, and their personal commitment to a clean sport environment, involved acceptance, anti-doping environment, motivation, permitted means to enhance performance and multi-dimensional identity. Doping was seen as the consequence of lapse in, or a lack of, personal commitment to clean sport. ConclusionFor the first time, empirical evidence has differentiated between commitment to clean sport, and anti-doping. Results from this investigation highlighted that the process by which abstract values are operationalized into personal value-systems and priorities, and enacted, are complex and fluid. Values-based, anti-doping education therefore should adopt a holistic and broad approach to reach beyond the values of sport within the context of anti-doping and consider the complex role of personal integrity and commitment to clean sport. Emphasis on the impact of anti-doping rule breaking on peers, society and culture is recommended in addition to greater awareness of one's responsibility for performance-enhancement related actions, and a clean sport mindset among athletes which extends beyond the sporting environment.

Organization of medical caremajor sporting events

Organization of medical support for major international events is one of the major challenges for organizers. There is no single supranational detailed normative act yet.Objective: to analyze the existing national and international regulatory framework for the regulation of medical support for competitions with the subsequent formation of a general algorithm and uniform requirements.Materials and methods: analysis of literature data and personal experience.Results: The authors set out the general principles of organizing medical support for sports events based on an analysis of their own experience and recommendations of international organizations. The basic principles have been tested at a number of major sporting events and are practice-oriented. The preparation of the regulations should be based on the normative act of the international federation for the sport, adjusted taking into account national legislation and the scale of the sporting event being held and our own experience in holding such events. The practical significance of the work is the proposed scheme for organizing medical care at a sports facility. The number of medical teams and medical centers at each sports facility is determined by the organizers of the sports event in accordance with the approved national and international rules; the equipment of medical services is determined by the regulations of the Ministry of Health.Conclusion: Medical regulations should contain general provisions, principles of health protection of athletes, implementation of anti-doping rules, compliance with safety measures at the facility. Requirements for the medical service of the competition for the personnel, facility, medical center of the arena, special conditions for ensuring the competition, interaction with the doping control services; maintenance of accounting and reporting documentation are allocated in a separate detailed chapter. A special place and training in practical skills should be given to the algorithm of actions in case of emergencies.

Adverse doping result: Let's talk about sex

Among the anti-doping rule violations, the presence of a prohibited substance or its metabolites or its markers in an athlete's sample constitutes the more frequent situation. As a consequence, a period of ineligibility is imposed to the athlete. However, in the world anti-doping code, it is indicated (point 10.5) that if someone establishes in an individual case that the athlete bears no fault or negligence , then the otherwise applicable period of ineligibility shall be eliminated. The conditions that have to be met to fix the no fault or negligence evidence are described in several other points of the code. Among the critical conditions that the author has identified in the past years (Kintz, J Anal Toxicol , 2021 and Kintz, J Pharm Biomed Anal , 2022), the following 2 points are of paramount importance: (1) the athlete or his/her legal representative must present verified circumstances of contamination and the source of contamination must be identified; and (2) there must be verified claims of the athlete about the fact that he/she did not knowingly take the prohibited substance, i.e. that the violation was not intentional. In the recent years, several cases of contamination involving supplements, contaminated pharmaceuticals, food, complex unusual contaminated items and finally during intimate moments have been reported. This later situation is known as “the kissing defence” or “the sex defence” and was first reported in 2009 with the Richard Gasquet case. Since that time, several athletes have been allowed to return to competition with no charge based on strong evidence that the source of contamination was drug transfer during intimate moments. As some of these cases are public and because the author performed hair tests for the majority of the international athletes involved in such procedures, the strategy of the defence and the scientific bases of discussion will be presented using authentic anti-doping rules violations.

Relationship between Doping Prevalence and Socioeconomic Parameters: An Analysis by Sport Categories and World Areas.

Socioeconomic differences between countries, including corruption and doping scandals, have increased in the last few decades. The aims of the current investigation were to examine doping prevalence according to world areas and sport groups and its association with socioeconomic factors worldwide. The Anti-Doping Rule Violations (ADRVs) of 160 countries competing at 2016 Olympics were analyzed between 2013 and 2018. In addition, the relationship between doping prevalence and socioeconomic characteristics, including Human Development Index (HDI), Per Capita Income (PCI) and Corruption Index (CI), was investigated. Africa, Asia, and America were revealed to have a significantly lower doping prevalence than Europe and Oceania when observing the sum and the mean ADRV/10,000 inhabitants (p < 0.01). Strong to moderate correlations were identified between Corruption Index and ADRVs and HDI and ADRVs (p < 0.01). However, the number of Olympic athletes was positively associated with the ADRVs and the HDI (r = 0.663 and 0.424, respectively). In the comparison by sport groups, the Independent Recognized Sports (AIMS) showed significantly higher Adverse Analytical Findings (AAF) and ADRVs (p < 0.01) than Olympic and Recognized International Sports (ARISF). In conclusion, the results of the current study reveal doping prevalence differences between world areas and sport categories, identifying associations with socioeconomic characteristics of each country.

(In)justice on Ice: Valieva and International Sport Governing Bodies’ Justice Duties Toward Underage Athletes

ABSTRACT After two years of discussions and revisions, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) published the 2021 World Anti-Doping Code on June 16, 2020. Among the most significant additions to this iteration of the Code was the inclusion of new categories of athletes subject to differential treatment by WADA, including the “protected person” category. In this paper, we examine the recent case of figure skater Kamila Valeryevna Valieva, the first athlete given differential treatment due to her being categorized as a “protected person.” We apply a relational justice framework to the case to provide a nuanced, descriptive analysis of the case generally, and the application of the “protected person” category in particular.We first describe details of the athlete, her performances and anti-doping rule violation, and the “protected person” category, to provide context. We then describe and analyze the relations between several institutional actors, principally WADA and the International Court for the Arbitration of Sport (CAS), the athlete and her team, and other figure skating athletes at the Beijing Winter Olympic Games. To do so, we use two concepts of justice, conservative and ideal, and their component parts, entitlement, desert, and need.Our description and analyses demonstrate that (1) WADA’s notions of justice are essentially conservative, while CAS acted toward more ideal notions, creating a fundamental disagreement in what was owed and to whom. We show (2) that CAS’ decision may have nonetheless caused harm to the athlete, raising questions about the efficacy and capability of the “protected person” category. Finally, (3) our analyses show the influence that notions of justice necessarily have these actors shape each other, thus change the sporting institutions and activities themselves.

Substances and Methods Prohibited for Use in Sport: Object or Means of Committing Crimes?

Countering doping in modern sport plays an important role. In order to effectively apply various types of legal liability, it is necessary to determine what substances and methods are prohib­ited in sport. Since the advent of full-fledged anti-doping rules (1967), the list of such substances and methods, as well as the doping control system, have been dynamically changing. The anti-doping system received significant development after the formation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (1999). For the purposes of bringing to criminal responsibility, there is a list, initially somewhat reduced, sub­sequently substantially supplemented. The legislator's decision to create a special list raises questions. Therefore, the Author considers various approaches to such substances and methods and determines their place in the crime. In the first part of the work, prohibited substances and methods are analyzed and their characteristics are given. In the second part, the Author explores the need for a specific list of prohibited substances or methods for the purpose of criminalizing anti-doping rule violations. In ad­dition, it distinguishes between narcotic, psychotropic, potent substances, on the one hand, and prohib­ited substances, on the other. The Author comes to the conclusion that the existence of a special list for the purposes of implementing Art. 2301 and 2302 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation is inap­propriate due to the specifics of the acts themselves, as this limits the possibility of being held liable for the use of analogues of substances. In the third part of the work, the Author explores the understanding of prohibited substances or methods as the subject of a crime. It is concluded that to consider prohibited substances or methods as the subject of crimes under Art. 2301 and 2302 of the Criminal Code of the Rus­sian Federation is impossible, since the crime is not directly directed at them. Accordingly, in the fourth part of the work it is substantiated that such substances and methods constitute the means of committing a crime. As a result, the Author comes to the conclusion that it is necessary to change the legislative regulation of criminal liability for violation of anti-doping rules.

Risk of unintentional antidoping rule violations by consumption of hemp products.

Consumption of hemp products is continuously growing, with an expanding scope of applications. Suppliers operate through different distribution channels, but the Internet is a major retail platform. Hemp products are prepared from cannabis plants and, therefore, might contain a variety of different natural cannabinoids. According to the regulations of the World Anti-Doping Agency, all natural and synthetic cannabinoids are prohibited in-competition, with the explicit exemption of cannabidiol. Therefore, an investigation of 23 hemp products for the presence of cannabinoids was performed to determine the likelihood of unintentional violations of anti-doping regulations. An assay for the detection of 16 cannabinoids in nutritional supplements was developed and validated. The sample preparation consisted of QuEChERS extraction, trimethylsilylation, and analysis by gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. All 23 commercially available hemp products were analyzed, and assay characteristics such as selectivity, limit of detection, limit of identification, limit of quantification, linearity, imprecision, recovery, and accuracy were determined. Twenty of 23 hemp products included a variety of cannabinoids at, occasionally, substantial concentrations, with four products covering the entire spectrum of tested cannabinoids. An ethics committee-approved single-dose administration study was conducted with the commercially available hemp products, investigating the presence of 16 cannabinoids in urine collected pre- and post-consumption. Variable patterns of cannabinoids or their metabolites in urine were observed. In 30% of the urine samples collected 8h after ingestion, the presence of a prohibited cannabinoid would have resulted in an unintentional violation of anti-doping regulations.

The quest for harmonisation in anti-doping: an Indian perspective

The World Anti-Doping Agency aims to promote clean sport through the introduction and implementation of harmonised rules under the World Anti-Doping Code, 2021 (the Code). Since WADA relies heavily on National Anti-Doping Organisations to implement the Code, the experience of anti-doping differs across countries. Some scholars argue that the current framework disproportionately impacts athletes from developing countries. This paper contributes to this debate by analysing systemic issues in the implementation of the Code in one such country—India. The legitimacy of anti-doping in India has been questioned as a result of the recent suspension of the National Dope-Testing Laboratory, a series of false positive tests, accusations of significant procedural and substantive errors by domestic tribunals, and access to justice challenges. Given the prevalence of doping in India, alongside the accumulation of recent controversies and push for reform, a deeper analysis of anti-doping in the country is warranted. The lack of compliance in India with certain requirements set out in the Code, as well as the failure to meet “best practice” standards set by other jurisdictions, is evidence that there is a lack of harmonisation in implementing anti-doping rules and procedures across countries. This paper contributes to the debate on the impact that a lack of harmonisation in the implementation of the Code can have on the legitimacy of the anti-doping framework. From a policy perspective, the proposed research agenda and recommendations can be applied to promote reform in India and other jurisdictions, especially in developing and emerging countries.

The problem of the obligation of a child athlete to comply with the provisions of the anti-doping legislation of Ukraine

Individuals of the sports school can be children and young people who have no medical contraindications for sports. Once the athlete gets enrolled in a sports school after successfully completing the required documentation process, a written letter is provided by the director of the school. Followed by this, the child acquires the corresponding status and, from that moment, he or she has a number of rights and responsibilities. Most of the sports schools prohibit the substance abuse once youth or children become part of their organization. After getting enrolled in a sports school, a child has certain responsibilities, including the obligation not to use prohibited substances and methods. In this article, the authors examine the legality of imposing this obligation on a child. The authors concluded that the child is obliged to comply with the anti-doping rules of sports organizations, but at the same time he/she has no right to buy medicines and choose a doctor on his/her own, and these things must be done by parents according to the legislation of Ukraine.

Dietary Supplements as a Major Cause of Anti-doping Rule Violations.

Dietary supplements encompass a large heterogenic group of products with a wide range of ingredients and declared effects used by athletes for a multitude of reasons. The high prevalence of use across all sports and level of competition, combined with the well-documented risks of such products containing prohibited substances have led to several doping cases globally. Despite being a considerable concern and persistent focus of sport organizations and anti-doping agencies, the magnitude of anti-doping rule violations associated with supplement use is not well-known. This study examines 18-years of doping controls of a national anti-doping program to determine the relationship between the presence of prohibited substances in athlete's doping samples and the use of dietary supplements. In 26% (n = 49) of all the analytical anti-doping rule violation cases in the period 2003–2020 (n = 192), the athlete claimed that a dietary supplement was the source of the prohibited substance causing an adverse analytical finding. Evidence supporting this claim was found in about half of these cases (n = 27, i.e., 14% of all analytical ADRV's). Stimulants were the most prevalent substance group linked to supplements (n = 24), of which methylhexanamine was associated with 16 cases. High risk products were predominantly multi-ingredient pre-workout supplements (n = 20) and fat-burning products (n = 4). Anti-doping organizations should develop strategies on how to assist athletes to assess the need, assess the risk and assess the consequences of using various dietary supplements.

Contaminated product and lifting a mandatory provisional suspension: Is there a new standard of proof in case of the All-Russian Anti-Doping Rules?

The story of the possible temporary suspension of Russian figure skating star Kamila Valieva during the 2022 Olympic Games was discussed as actively as the results of the competitions. The figure skater passed a positive doping test during the competition in December 2021 but only found out about it on February 8. The Russian Anti-Doping Agency (RUSADA) applied a mandatory provisional suspension to the athlete. However, on February 9, the RUSADA Disciplinary Anti-Doping Committee, at the appeal of the skater, lifted the decision of RUSADA on suspension and the athlete was able to take part in the Olympic games. The International Skating Union, the International Olympic Committee, and the World Anti- Doping Agency (WADA) filed appeals against the Anti-Doping Committee’s decision. The Court of Arbitration for Sport denied all appeals and affirmed the decision of the RUSADA Anti-Doping Committee. The key point was the status of the skater a protected person according to the view of the WADA World Anti-Doping Code — a protected person. At the same time, the special regime for a protected person did not extend to the standard of proof. Such an athlete, like any other athlete, must prove on the basic of a “balance of probability” that a prohibited substance was entered through a contaminated product to lift a mandatory provisional suspension. In the opinion of the RUSADA Anti-Doping Committee, the athlete was able to prove a “reasonable possibility” of a prohibited substance entering her body through a contaminated product. The literal application of the norm of the All-Russian Anti-Doping Rules, in contrast to the WADA Code, is required to prove that “the violation most likely occurred due to the use of a contaminated product”. The extraordinary situation is commented on by the author.

Pilot study of the coping strategies on the “Unintended” anti-doping rule violations:

Pilot study of the coping strategies on the “Unintended” anti-doping rule violations:

Trends in the development of modern lex sportiva on the example of anti-doping rules in Russia

Trends in the development of modern lex sportiva on the example of anti-doping rules in Russia

On the Appropriateness of the Use of the Term “Inducement” in Article 230&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation

The problem of prohibited substances (methods) abuse in sport has existed for quite a long time. On the one hand, by criminalizing certain anti-doping rules violations, legislation expanded the liability limits of coaches, sports medical personnel, and of other specialists in the field of sports, which can be regarded positively. On the other hand, it made certain mistakes which impeded the effectiveness of these laws enforcement. Among other things, there is a problem with definition of the term “inducement”. The term itself is defined in the note to article 2301 of the Russian Federation Criminal Code, but there is a controversy in demarcation of inducement. methods. While deception, the use of violence and instructions as inducement methods are socially dangerous at substantial level and can be regarded as methods of committing the crime, the provision of information or the prohibited substances themselves (means of using methods) cannot be regarded as methods of committing the crime. Such a definition of inducement means also leads to contradictions with the corpus delicti under Article 2302 of the Russian Federation Criminal Code. In addition, there are also different interpretations regarding the methods of inducement, coercion, involvement in the other corpus delicti, which, all together with the lack of a unified interpretation of the terms affects the possibility of bringing the guilty persons, especially coaches, sports medical personnel and other specialists in the field of sports, to criminal responsibility. The survey conducted among lawyers also has revealed difficulties in distinguishing these terms in practice. Based on the criminal legislation analysis, the author comes to the conclusion that the amendments in the Russian Federation Criminal Code are necessary.

Liability under Anti-Doping Law in Public Law Domain

In Poland, the Act of April 21, 2017 on Combating Doping in Sport is in force. The new law raises new questions. One of the questions is whether, the combating doping in sport belongs to private law or public law. The dualistic division of law itself is problematic. The legal regulation of doping has undergone a process similar to criminal law, i.e. from private law to public law. A breakthrough in combating doping was the establishment of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 1999.The new Polish act followed this path. The Act on Combating Doping in Sport provided the legal basis for the existence of the Polish Anti-Doping Agency (POLADA), as a state legal entity. POLADA is therefore a body governed by public law, which establishes anti-doping rules, controls and oversees compliance, authorises the use of prohibited substances or methods, and conducts disciplinary action for violation of anti-doping rules.

Doping Sanctions in Sport: Knowledge and Perception of (Legal) Consequences of Doping—An Explorative Study in Austria

Anti-doping rule violations (ADRVs) can lead to sports-related and legal sanctions, thus, being knowledgeable is important. Research into this knowledge and how athletes and their support personnel (ASP) perceive the control mechanisms and the appropriateness of (legal) sanctions is still scarce. This explorative study aimed to examine the knowledge and perception of existing (legal) sanctions in Austria, by distributing a questionnaire to Austrian athletes and ASP covering the topics of knowledge related to legal and sports-related consequences associated with a specific ADRV presented in a case study, their trust and satisfaction with specific agencies (based on the European Social Survey (ESS)) and perceived efficiency and effectiveness of the doping control system. Data were analyzed descriptively. All respondents (N = 59) agreed on a ban from sport to be appropriate. Knowledge about legal consequences and the trust in the judiciary and the sport governing bodies was moderate (6.82 out of 10). Perceived appropriate consequences were on average higher than the likely sanctions to be faced. Future prevention should include trust building measures in the institutions and the control system, improvement in terms of access to law and education for the target group and critical reflection on the existence of social norms. Furthermore, the implementation of risk management aspects should be part of future approaches.

Doping in recreational Welsh Rugby Union; Athletes’ beliefs and perceptions related to Anti-Doping policy and practice

Understanding the attitudes and dispositions of athletes towards doping has been the subject of increasing research. Few studies, however, manage to capture these attitudes and dispositions from athletes who have committed anti-doping rule violations. According to UK Anti-Doping (2020) data, 10% of all sanctioned athletes came from recreational levels of Welsh rugby union. Although there are significant doping concerns within Welsh rugby, no research investigations exist that examine this specific population. Uniquely, the present research sheds light on “doped” athletes within recreational Welsh rugby union. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with (n = 13) “doped” recreational Welsh rugby players. Interviews revealed a wide range of factors, including motivations for doping, drug use patterns, perceived harms and athletes’ experiences and perceptions of Anti-Doping Policy and practice. This study focuses on interviews where participants reveal a substantial disregard of Anti-Doping policy and practice and concerns surface across three main themes: (1) perceived lack of frequency related to doping control tests; (2) perceived lack of testing efficacy; and (3) advanced warning of doping controls by coaches. Not only does this data raise serious concerns for the integrity of sport at recreational levels, but it also challenges the discourses around perceived legitimacy of anti-doping therein.

β2-agonists in sports: prevalence and impact on athletic performance

Respiratory disorders caused by exercise are expressed in the development of exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) and exercise-induced asthma (EIA), which are observed in athletes, especially in cyclic sports, much more often than in the population. Ventilation impairments are exacerbated by inhaled allergens, industrial pollutants and adverse environmental conditions, which increase the risk of EIB and asthma symptoms in athletes. The use of β2-agonists can prevent or eliminate ventilation disorders, however, it requires taking into account current anti-doping rules, which allow the use of certain substances in sports without a request for therapeutic use. The studies of the influence of β2-agonists on functional indicators of athletes and sports performance do not allow to make an unambiguous conclusion about its results. Medications with β2-agonists, approved for use in sports in the form of inhalation, do not have a significant effect on the performance of athletes at major sports competitions. At the same time, the systemic use of these substances and the use of any form of terbutaline caused a positive dynamics in functional indicators, which could lead to an illegal increase in the effectiveness of sports performance. Most of the conclusions about the effect of β2-agonists on outcome are based on a small number of studies, their heterogeneity, and an insignificant number of observations. It is necessary to continue studying the effects of β2-agonists in the course of randomized clinical trials in order to individualize therapy and prevent bronchial obstruction in athletes

The assessment of the structure of anti-doping rules violation and the evaluation of anti-doping measures efficiency in Russian athletics during 2000–2020

The assessment of the structure and trends of doping perpetrations among athletes with a proven high prevalence of doping use might be of great practical interest. Non-compliance with the zero-tolerance policy towards anti-doping rules violators among sports communities with a high prevalence of doping offenses is the main cause of the ineffective fight against doping.Objective: to analyze the structure of anti-doping rule violations and evaluate the effectiveness of measures to counter the spread of doping in Russian athletics in 2000–2020.Materials and methods: to form an objective picture, a database was collected on all anti-doping rule violators in Russian athletics from 2000 to June 01, 2020 from open sources. Retrospective analysis of the protocols of all official competitions held in Russia since 2000 and included in the RUSAF Unified Schedule was performed.Results: 381 cases of anti-doping rule violation committed during 2000–2020 period by 355 athletes were registered. 25 athletes committed 2 doping offenses and 1 athlete 3 ones. Women perpetrated more offenses than men.Conclusions: our study objectified the doping issue in Russian athletics and evaluated the effectiveness of anti-doping measures. The study indicates the need to stop ignoring zero-tolerance policy principles towards doping offenders among the athletic community and creates an incentive to develop functional mechanisms to combat doping.