Anti-doping Organizations Research Articles

The Athlete Biological Passport from the perspective of an anti-doping organization

The introduction of the Athlete Biological Passport is a landmark in the fight against doping. Contrary to traditional toxicological anti-doping analysis, its aim is to detect the biological consequences of doping through the measurement of different specific biomarkers which generate individual profiles for each athlete. This new approach allows anti-doping organizations to convict those athletes showing abnormal profiles for the use (not the presence!) of even undetectable forbidden substances or methods. Additionally, these data can be used for other purposes: to conduct targeted conventional anti-doping tests on those athletes showing unusual results and to evaluate the prevalence of doping within a population of athletes. By now only the hematological biomarkers of blood doping have been validated, but in the future additional modules will be introduced to detect other forms of doping.

Taking Strides Toward Prevention-Based Deterrence: USATF Coaches Perceptions of PED Use and Drug Testing

As national anti-doping organizations (NADOs) adopt preventative measures to complement detection-based deterrence methods, understanding coaches’ attitudes toward drugs in sport will take on a new importance. This study was conducted to measure coaches’ attitudes in the sport of track and field toward performance enhancing drug (PED) use and drug testing. A total of 254 track and field coaches (Age: 33.4 yrs ±9.7) completed a 51-item survey. Coaches who were certified reported they felt more knowledgeable about PED use (rs = .168, p = .004) and that they had learned about PED use and testing through the USA Track and Field (USATF) coaches education program (rs = .220, p < .001). USATF certified coaches also reported a stronger perception that the coach plays a key role in PED deterrence (rs = .158, p = .006). These findings suggest that national sport governing bodies (NGBs) like USATF have taken significant steps to educate prospective coaches on the topic of PED’s and drug testing and these measures have positively impacted coaches.

The biological passport and doping in athletics

The head of the French anti-doping agency (AFLD) has questioned the eff ectiveness of the biological passport to detect doping at the Tour de France, which started on July 3. A biological passport monitors an athlete’s blood and body chemistry values over time to assess whether there has been a deviation from an established baseline, thus indirectly detecting illegal manipulation. Implemented by the International Cycling Union for the 2008 cycling season and approved for widespread use by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in December, 2009, the biological passport was criticised by AFLD’s Pierre Bordry, who says cyclists consistently taking small amounts of doping substances can go undetected. Although Bordry’s comments have merit and will need to be taken into consideration as the biological passport system is modifi ed over time, the biological passport might well prove to be an improvement over the traditional method of direct detection of doping. Traditional tests have searched for direct evidence of known doping agents, but the biological passport can look for changes from baseline that might result from doping, even if the specifi c drug or tactic is unknown. Some drugs, such as erythropoietin, which increases erythrocyte production, can only be detected for a few days, but the performance benefi ts last for weeks, producing a suspicious blood profi le indicative of previous use of erythropoietin. Also, traditional tests compare concentrations of a banned substance with averages for an entire population, but the biological passport’s emphasis on many readings from an individual should make it easier to catch a doped athlete. The biological passport is a breakthrough in the antidoping fi ght, and WADA’s Athlete Biological Passport Operating Guidelines should be implemented by all anti-doping organisations. Monitoring biological variables that indirectly reveal the eff ects of doping should make it more diffi cult to take banned substances. The biological passport has already been used against elite cyclist Franco Pellizotti, who won the prestigious honour of being the best mountain climber in last year’s Tour de France, to keep him out of the Tour of Italy in May. In advance of the London 2012 Olympics, it is encouraging to see that all UK athletes will receive biological passports. The UK’s example should be followed by all countries participating in the 2012 Olympics in the eff ort to combat doping in athletics.

Harmonization of anti-doping work: myth or reality?

In order to examine the implementation of the World Anti Doping Agency's (WADA) policy of global harmonization of anti-doping work, a survey was conducted among the members of the Association of National Anti-Doping Organizations (ANADO). It was revealed that in many countries, the Code was not implemented in accordance with the prescribed policy, with regard to (i) the requirement on national anti-doping organizations (NADOs) having a registered testing pool, (ii) the requirements of availability for testing of the athletes, and (iii) the requirements on sanctions. Only 23 of the 32 NADOs in the sample had a registered testing pool, only 11 NADOs required availability for testing every day, and one in five NADOs did not have any procedures for dealing with athletes who had not provided information about their whereabouts. Further, two in five did not count an incomplete test as a missed test, although this is WADA's definition. WADA's goal is harmonized anti-doping work. The implementation of anti-doping policy is challenging and is to a certain extent underpinned by processes of globalization. Even among NADOs that are considered to be among the global frontrunners in the struggle against doping significant variations exist. There is reason to believe that the global picture is even more diverse. One of WADA's key challenges is to define clearly and in operational terms which rules and sanctions are to be uniform and globally implemented, and which regulations can be open to interpretation depending on economic and socio-cultural contexts.

Are there honest intentions in the fight against doping? The case of Cyprus

Doping and the use of prohibited substances is one of the major issues that sport is facing currently in Cyprus. The fact that an increasing number of athletes tested positive on the island over the last couple of years raised additional concerns and the issue became even more contentious. In this climate of controversy and concern regarding doping and the use of prohibited substances by athletes in Cyprus, the Cyprus Sport Organization took a radical decision in 2008 in which the Cyprus National Anti-Doping Agency, which had been operating for over 20 years as a branch of the Cyprus Sport Organization, would cease to operate by May 2009, giving its position over to the Cyprus National Anti-Doping Organization (NADO), as prescribed by the international anti-doping agencies. The aim of this paper is to examine one basic issue: Are there honest intentions or not in the fight against doping in the case of Cyprus? The cause for this research paper arose from the experiences gathered during the process of the transformation of the Cyprus National Anti-Doping Agency to a National Anti-Doping Organization, and especially from the resistance that evolved from the top sports administrators in the National Sports Federations in Cyprus. What are the true intentions of sports administrators, then? Do they honestly wish to fight doping or not?

The importance of cooling of urine samples for doping analysis

Storing and transporting of urine samples for doping analysis, as performed by the anti-doping organizations associated with the World Anti-Doping Agency, does not include a specific protocol for cooled transport from the place of urine sampling to the doping laboratory, although low cost cooling facilities can easily be made available. As a result, microbial and thermal degradation of the chemical substances in the urine may occur, which may lead to false negative or false positive results in the subsequent doping analysis. This scientifically and morally unacceptable practice is still maintained in spite of publications demonstrating that immediate cooling is an absolute requirement. Given the enormous societal consequences of positive tests, the lack of a controllable chain of custody during transport should be outlawed. This paper proposes a simple method, based on immediate cooling and cooled transport, which can easily be implemented in developed countries at low cost.

The International Antidoping System and Why It Works

In the days leading up to the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, a number of scientific journals published special issues (1)(2) or critical commentaries and opinion pieces regarding the antidoping movement. For example, an analysis of antidoping policy by Kayser and Smith (3) presented criticisms based on ethical arguments (4). On the other hand, equally persuasive ethical arguments supporting antidoping policies were reported by Murray (5). In addition, the public statements released by the defense team before each of the 2 arbitration hearings for Tour De France winner Floyd Landis, at which he was convicted of committing a doping violation, vehemently attacked the laboratory and the staff that performed the test. These public attacks were by advocates for the defendant, and the antidoping rules prevented a response to these charges. My purpose here is to provide an overview of how the current antidoping rules came into effect, to review some of the science underlying the antidoping rules, and to discuss a few of the cases decided by the Court of Arbitration in Sport (CAS).1 The fight against performance-enhancing substances began in the 1920s, long before there were testing methods for the prohibited substances. For years, the leaders of sport went it alone in this fight. Some critics argued, and continue to argue, that sport leaders have an issue similar to the “fox guarding the henhouse” when it comes to overseeing drug-testing programs. A major shift occurred in 1999, when the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was formed as an independent body to harmonize antidoping practices, and independent national antidoping organizations such as the Australian Sport Drug Agency, the Canadian Center for Ethics in Sport, and the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) began to emerge. WADA was established as a Swiss foundation with the support of intergovernmental bodies, governments, …

Cannabinoids cases in polish athletes

The aim of this study was to investigate the number of cases and the profiles of Polish athletes who had occasionally been using marijuana or hashish throughout the period of 1998-2004, with respect to: sex, age, and discipline of sport as well as the period of testing (in- and out-of-competition). Results of the study were compared with some data reported by other WADA accredited anti- doping laboratories. Totally, 13 631 urine samples taken from Polish athletes of both sexes, aged 10-67 years, performing 46 disciplines of sport were tested. Cannabinoids were detected in 267 samples. Among Polish athletes the relative number of positive THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) samples was one of the highest in Europe. The group of young Polish athletes (aged 16-24 years) was the most THC- positive. THC-positive cases were noted more frequently in male athletes tested during out of competitions. The so-called contact sports (rugby, ice hockey), skating, boxing, badminton, body building and acrobatic sports were those sports, where the higher risk of cannabis use was observed. The legal interpretation of some positive cannabinoids results would be difficult because of some accidental and unintentional use of the narcotics by sportsmen. It was concluded that national anti-doping organizations (NADO's), which are competent to judge whether the anti-doping rules were violated, should take into account the possibility of non- intentional doping use of cannabinoids via passive smoking of marijuana. (Biol.Sport 26:119-135, 2009)

The UK Sport perspective on detecting growth hormone abuse

Background and objectives Human growth hormone (hGH) is seen as a doping risk in sport because of its possible anabolic and lipolytic effects. As a result of this hGH is prohibited for athletes to use both in and out-of-competition by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) requiring Anti-Doping Organisations to work with research teams in identifying ways to detect hGH abuse. Approach This paper reviews and discusses the UK Sport perspective on the challenges faced in detecting hGH and in particular draws upon the experiences gained during the collaborative efforts with the GH-2004 research team in achieving the implementation of the Marker Method for hGH detection. Conclusions In 2008 significant progress has been made; there is one test for detecting HGH approved for use in anti-doping and a second detection method pending. This is a strong reflection of the ongoing research efforts in anti-doping and the progress being made by the Anti-Doping Organisations in reducing the risk that doping poses to sport.

IGF-I abuse in sport: Current knowledge and future prospects for detection

As the tests for detecting growth hormone (GH) abuse develop further, it is likely that athletes will turn to doping with insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I). IGF-I mediates many of the anabolic actions of growth hormone. It stimulates muscle protein synthesis, promotes glycogen storage and enhances lipolysis, all of which make IGF-I attractive as a potential performance-enhancing agent. Pharmaceutical companies have developed commercial preparations of recombinant human IGF-I (rhIGF-I) for use in disorders of growth. The increased availability of rhIGF-I increases the opportunity for athletes to acquire supplies of the drug on the black market. The long-term effects of IGF-I administration are currently unknown but it is likely that these will be similar to the adverse effects of chronic GH abuse. The detection of IGF-I abuse is a challenge for anti-doping organisations. Research has commenced into the development of a test for IGF-I abuse based on the measurement of markers of GH action. Simultaneously, the effects of rhIGF-I on physical fitness, body composition and substrate utilisation in healthy volunteers are being investigated.

Towards a social science of drugs in sport

With the role of social science becoming more prominent in drugs in sport research, this essay sets out an agenda designed to provide a starting point for co-ordinated research in the field. The agenda is derived from efforts across the social sciences, including sports philosophy, sociology, economics, law and psychology (health and educational). These disciplinary statements are augmented by a statement on ‘cosmopolitan research’, aiming to establish collaboration as the norm for investigations of drugs in sport using social science methods. Some consideration is given to the practicalities of researching in this area, specifically sources of funding and working with national anti-doping organizations. This agenda and consideration for practicalities is the culmination of efforts from a team of social scientists seeking to promote research by posing questions and offering opinions with which to agree and disagree; that is, moving towards a vibrant social science of drugs in sport.

The Establishment of the World Anti-Doping Agency

This article examines the circumstances surrounding the establishment of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), which was established following the World Conference on Doping in Sport convened by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and held in Lausanne in 1999. More specifically, the article draws upon Elias's game models to analyse: i) the way in which the IOC sought to manage this process of change in such a way that its longstanding position as the world's leading anti-doping organization would be reinforced; and ii) the IOC's inability to control this process, with the result that the IOC failed to achieve any of its objectives, its position as the world's anti-doping organization was actually undermined, and world leadership passed to a new organization which had a significant measure of independence from the IOC.

Evaluation of a tutor network system for a national education programme on drug-free sport

The aim of this study was to analyse the effectiveness, from the tutors' perspective, of UK Sport's anti-doping education programme, 100% ME, the principal objective of which is to provide accurate and up-to-date anti-doping information and education using outreach, ambassadors and accredited tutors. A whole population survey was performed using both a paper-based and electronic questionnaire. From the questionnaires delivered to tutors (n = 215) there was a 50.7% response rate. Having a tutorship role as part of their job description, personal interest in the subject of doping in sport and continuing professional development were cited as reasons why many respondents wished to become a tutor. Most tutors expressed a high or moderate degree of satisfaction with their training. Despite this, only 63.3% of tutors felt competent to run a workshop after the tutor training course. Many requested more information concerning the action and use of the drugs liable to be employed for performance enhancement. Overall, 334 workshops had been presented by tutors. Approximately two thirds of tutors had been unable to accept some invitations to run workshops, with other commitments, timing and distance to travel to the venue as being the main barriers. Of the tutors who had run workshops, 85% were satisfied that they had fulfilled the educational needs of the audience. Workshop audiences included the full spectrum of those in need of education, from elite athletes through to potential, school-level athletes and their respective supporters. The highest proportion of workshops were to audiences consisting of athletes and coaches. Evaluation of the UK Sport accredited tutor system revealed a number of positive outcomes, including: a generally enthusiastic network of tutors, with a wide spectrum of experience and expertise, workshops that have reached all strata of persons involved in sport and the provision of resources that have been perceived to be useful and beneficial to target audiences. A number of recommendations for improvement were identified, including clarification on the expectations of UK Sport and the tutors with regard to their respective roles in initiating educational events; the establishment of local and regional networks of tutors; a review of the accreditation training days; ensuring robustness of an annual re-accreditation scheme for tutors, including re-training where appropriate. In conclusion, this national initiative for providing a network of accredited tutors to provide education and advice on drug-free sport has been a positive step. The concept of such a system may be considered by other national anti-doping organizations.

History of mass spectrometry at the Olympic Games

Mass spectrometry has played a decisive role in doping analysis and doping control in human sport for almost 40 years. The standard of qualitative and quantitative determinations in body fluids has always attracted maximum attention from scientists. With its unique sensitivity and selectivity properties, mass spectrometry provides state-of-the-art technology in analytical chemistry. Both anti-doping organizations and the athletes concerned expect the utmost endeavours to prevent false-positive and false-negative results of the analytical evidence. The Olympic Games play an important role in international sport today and are milestones for technical development in doping analysis. This review of the part played by mass spectrometry in doping control from Munich 1972 to Beijing 2008 Olympics gives an overview of how doping analysis has developed and where we are today. In recognizing the achievements made towards effective doping control, it is of the utmost importance to applaud the joint endeavours of the World Anti-Doping Agency, the International Olympic Committee, the international federations and national anti-doping agencies to combat doping. Advances against the misuse of prohibited substances and methods, which are performance-enhancing, dangerous to health and violate the spirit of sport, can be achieved only if all the stakeholders work together.

A forensic approach to the interpretation of blood doping markers

In the fight against blood doping, the interpretation of the measured levels of blood markers is based on either population-derived reference ranges or the previous test history of the individual under scrutiny. In this report, we demonstrate how an empirical hierarchical Bayesian model can be used to unify both approaches. The aim is to allow anti-doping organizations to bring reliable evidence of blood manipulation in front of a disciplinary panel. Before any tests are performed on an individual, population distributions constitute the priors of a Bayesian network that may depend on heterogeneous factors such as gender, ethnic origin and age. Inferences from the results of a new test are then drawn iteratively. A decision rule can be defined to minimize the expected costs of a decision. Secondly, the same model can be applied to evaluate the evidence of blood doping from a full sequence of individual test results, and not just from a single test result as a function of previous results. We obtained unprecedented sensitivity on a database of 1239 blood samples. Thirdly, if applied to a population of athletes, an extension of the model makes it possible to estimate the prevalence of blood doping for reasonably large populations of athletes. Knowledge of the prevalence allows the decision maker to estimate the prior odds of an athlete being doped. As a consequence, the false-positive fallacy, a form of the prosecutor's fallacy that originates from today multiplication of the number of anti-doping tests, is removed. The joined application of the Bayesian model for (1) the estimation of the prevalence at the population level and (2) the evaluation of the evidence at the individual level will allow anti-doping organizations to prosecute cases for which evidentiary values are derived from indirect blood tests.

Attitudes and doping: a structural equation analysis of the relationship between athletes' attitudes, sport orientation and doping behaviour

BackgroundFor effective deterrence methods, individual, systemic and situational factors that make an athlete or athlete group more susceptible to doping than others should be fully investigated. Traditional behavioural models assume that the behaviour in question is the ultimate end. However, growing evidence suggests that in doping situations, the doping behaviour is not the end but a means to an end, which is gaining competitive advantage. Therefore, models of doping should include and anti-doping policies should consider attitudes or orientations toward the specific target end, in addition to the attitude toward the 'tool' itself.ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to empirically test doping related dispositions and attitudes of competitive athletes with the view of informing anti-doping policy developments and deterrence methods. To this end, the paper focused on the individual element of the drug availability – athlete's personality – situation triangle.MethodsData were collected by questionnaires containing a battery of psychological tests among competitive US male college athletes (n = 199). Outcome measures included sport orientation (win and goal orientation and competitiveness), doping attitude, beliefs and self-reported past or current use of doping. A structural equation model was developed based on the strength of relationships between these outcome measures.ResultsWhilst the doping model showed satisfactory fit, the results suggested that athletes' win and goal orientation and competitiveness do not play a statistically significant role in doping behaviour, but win orientation has an effect on doping attitude. The SEM analysis provided empirical evidence that sport orientation and doping behaviour is not directly related.ConclusionThe considerable proportion of doping behaviour unexplained by the model suggests that other factors play an influential role in athletes' decisions regarding prohibited methods. Future research, followed by policy development, should incorporate these factors to capture the complexity of the doping phenomenon and to identify points for effective anti-doping interventions. Sport governing bodies and anti-doping organisations need to recognise that using performance enhancements may be more of a rational, outcome optimizing behaviour than deviance and consider offering acceptable alternative performance-enhancing methods to doping.

Are Doping Sanctions Justified? A Moral Relativistic View

Certain performance-enhancing substances and training methods are forbidden by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and other international sport organizations. The reasons usually given by ruling sports organizations to ban doping are: (i) doping is harmful to athletes' health; (ii) doping is unfair because athletes who are reluctant to use it do not have a fair chance when competing against doped athletes; (iii) doping runs counter to the ‘nature’ or the ‘spirit’ of sport, which is said to be to strive for victory by exhibiting natural physical skills and excellence of character without the help of any artificial products. In this essay, firstly, I will argue, contrary to (iii) above, that doping is not only compatible with, but also incarnates, the true spirit of modern competitive elite sports. Secondly, I will also argue, contrary to (ii) above, that, if the doping ban is kept, fairness (understood as equality of the relevant competitive conditions in a sport contest) demands more fine-tuned doping regulations and sanctions rather than increased standardization. This criticizes the IOC and WADA's current efforts to enforce general standards to punish doping violations, as their current policy fails to consider the social and sport-ethical particularities of the different communities from which dopers come.

World anti-doping regulations for 2005: essential changes for athletes and physicians

The World Anti-Doping Code was renewed by an international sports organization committee prior to the Olympic Games in Athens in 2004. Up to now, most of the important international sports federations have accepted the code. Governments will soon follow and set the legislative milestones for the fight against doping. Surveillance and code-conversion are being done by national anti-doping organizations. In 2005, the structural organization and the content of the 2004 prohibited list have been modified: "substances and methods prohibited all times" (in and out of competition); "substances and methods prohibited in competition", "substances prohibited in particular sports", and "specified substances" are separately discussed. News regarding "specific substances", "whereabout-infos" and "therapeutic use exemptions" are outlined clearly.