Infant Anthropometric Measurements Research Articles

Breast milk leptin and adiponectin in relation to infant body composition up to 2 years.

Adipokines in breast milk have been associated with infant growth trajectories. We aimed to explore the relationship of leptin and adiponectin in breast milk with infant weight gain and body composition up to the age of 2 years. Breast milk samples were collected from exclusively or partially breastfeeding mothers at 6 weeks (n = 152) and 4 months (n = 120) post-partum. Leptin and adiponectin were determined in skim breast milk and related to infant growth and fat mass assessed by skin-fold thickness measurements. A total of 118 infants were examined at 2 years. The levels of both milk adipokines were slightly lower at 4 months compared with 6 weeks post-partum. Breast milk leptin was largely unrelated to infant anthropometric measures up to 2 years. Milk adiponectin tended to be inversely related to early infant anthropometry up to 4 months, but beyond was positively associated with weight gain and the sum of skin-folds up to 2 years. Our results suggest that higher adiponectin levels in breast milk might be associated with greater weight gain and higher fat mass in the offspring up to 2 years.

Impact of Exclusive Breast Feeding on the Growth of Sudanese Children (0-24 Months)

This study was conducted to prove that exclusive breast feeding is the best way through which infants get their optimum nourishment, thus ensure growth and development. The general objective of this study is to investigate the growth of exclusively breast-fed (EBFD) children (0-24 months). The specific objectives aim to identify the prevalence rate of EBF, its influence on incidence of diarrhea and chest infection was also investigated. The methodology followed was descriptive analytical procedure and information was collected by a questionnaire and anthropometric measurements of infants recorded during the study period. EPI-INFO version 6.2.3. and SPSS programs version 13 were used for data analysis. Three hundred and sixty full term normal weight infants delivered at Omdurman Maternity Hospitalwere included in the study. The result showed that among the mothers 94% were aged 20-39 years, 70% had university education and 69% were housewives. Average family size was 4.1 and 2.5% lived below the UN poverty line. Breast-feeding was initiated by 92.8% of the mothers immediately after birth; its duration was 70.2% for 19-24 month. A new pregnancy was the major reason for stopping breast-feeding. Forty percent of the children were EBFD and they had better duration of breast-feeding at 19-24 months than the non-EBFD (p<0.00). They had lower incidence of diarrhea and chest infections (p<0.00) and lower episodes (p<0.00). Their growth was better in term of weight for age and weight for length (p<0.00).

The effects of prenatal oxidative stress levels on infant adiposity development during the first year of life.

Although numerous studies have been conducted to examine the causal factors of childhood obesity, the implications of intrauterine oxidative stress on early postnatal adiposity development remain to be elucidated. The Universiti Sains Malaysia Birth Cohort Study aimed to investigate the effects of prenatal oxidative stress levels on the development of infant adiposity during the first year of life. This study was conducted on the healthy pregnant women aged 19-40 years, from April 2010 to December 2012 in Kelantan, Malaysia. Maternal blood samples were drawn in the second trimester to analyse for oxidative stress markers. Infant anthropometric measurements were taken at birth, 2, 6 and 12 months of age. A total of 153 pregnant women and full-term infants were included in the analysis. Statistical test was conducted by using multiple linear regression. Through the infant first year of life, as maternal DNA damage level in the second trimester increased, infant weights at birth (β=-0.122, P<0.001), 2 months (β=-0.120, P=0013), 6 months (β=-0.209, P=0.003) and 12 months of age (β=-0.241, P=0.006) decreased after adjusting for confounders. Similar results were noted when infant body mass index-for-age Z-scores and triceps skinfold-for-age Z-scores were used as the adiposity indicators. In conclusion, the present study shows a consistent inverse association between maternal DNA damage and infant adiposity during the first year of life. These infants with reduced growth and adiposity in early postnatal life may have a high tendency to experience catch-up growth during childhood, which could be strongly associated with later obesity.

Nutritional Status of Pregnant Women in Relation to Anthropometric Measurements of Mothers and Their Newborns

Due to lack of awareness of food and incorrect food habits of pregnant women during pregnancy, the objective of this study is an assessment of the diets of pregnant women; that can affect anthropometric measurements of mothers and their newborns; in the third trimester of pregnancy (36- 40week).Information of pregnant women (20) was collected. The obtained results showed lower rates of food intake and consumption than allowable dietary recommendations with the exception of animal protein and fat, despite the lack of iron in the diet, and lack of hemoglobin in the blood. The intake of vegetable protein and fiber was very poor. The quantity of sodium consumed was higher than the recommended dietary allowances (RDA) while, the intakes of other micronutrients were lower than the respective RDA with the exception of phosphorus, copper and zinc which were not statistically different from the RDA. When, pregnant women were divided into two groups according to birth weights (Group one 2 kg and Group two< 2 kg), The data showed a significant increase in plant protein intake, total protein and calories for the second group compared to the first group also, the second group was characterized by higher amounts of sugar, fat and yogurt and cooked vegetables. Likewise significant increases in some anthropometric measurements of the second group compared to the first group, especially in weight and thickness of skin layer were found. Furthermore, the relationship between anthropometric measurements of infants and intake of nutrients of the mother revealed that there was a significant positive relationship between birth weight and total calories, and there was a significant positive relationship between protein intake and the length of birth and body mass index of births that was directly proportional to both total protein and total calorie intake during the last third of pregnancy. In conclusion, this study provides indications that pregnancy could indeed be a life event leading to increased general nutrition awareness that might influence pregnant women’s future nutrition-related behaviors.

Correlation between anemia during delivery and developmental delay

Abstract Introduction: Because of the necessity for more and different follow-ups in children with developmental disorders in the early years of lifetime, determination of effective factors during pregnancy is important in any society. This study was performed to reveal a correlation of anemia in mothers during childbirth with developmental status of 12-month infants. Materials and Methods: This study was performed through designing descriptive correlation on 250 mothers and their 12-month infants who visited to health services centers affiliated to Qazvin University of Medical Sciences and Health-Treatment Services in 1390 in multistage sampling method. Data collection tool included informational forms, Ages and Stages Questionnaire, as well as infant anthropometric measurements were taken by the researcher with the meter and scale. Thereafter, the data was statistically analyzed with Software SPSS16 and Chi-square, Independent T, Mann-Whitney and Logistic regression tests. Results: The results showed that the average age of mothers in developmental delay group was 28.39±5.17and in natural developmental group was 27.68±5.15. The most frequency of mothers had primary school education and homemaker. 66.7% out of all infants in anemic group and 55% in non-anemic group are boys. Prevalence of iron-deficiency anemia in the studied society was 12% and prevalence of developmental delay of children was 22.4%. Anemia had a significant correlation with developmental status of infants and its communicational domain (p<0.05). In the logistics model, hemoglobin showed significant correlation with developmental status of infants (p=0.02 and OR=0.31). Also the male gender had a value close to significance level (p=0.55 and OR=0.052). Other variables had no correlations. Conclusion: There is probability that occurrence of infants’ developmental delay is as a result of anemia because iron is necessary for development of central nervous system. Keywords: Anemia, Ages and Stage Questionnaire, Developmental dela

Anthropometric measurements in infants conceived by assisted reproductive techniques versus spontaneous conception

Objective: To compare body length and head circumference at birth of neonates conceived after in vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic injection (IVF/ICSI), ovarian stimulation alone (OSa) or by natural conception (NC).Methods: A retrospective, cohort study of all singleton neonates conceived after fertility treatment and born at 38–40 gestational weeks in 2011 in a tertiary, university-affiliated hospital. Pregnancy, delivery and neonatal data were obtained from the medical records. NC singleton neonates born at 38–40 weeks were selected to serve as controls.Results: The sample included 81 IVF/ICSI neonates, 102 OSa neonates and 91 neonates after NC. Mean gestational age (GA) was 38.8 weeks. Gravidity and parity were significantly higher in the NC group. Mean neonatal length was 50.0 ± 2.1 cm in the IVF/ICSI group, 49.7 ± 2.6 cm in the OSa group and 50.3 ± 2 cm in the NC group (p = 0.123). Corresponding mean head circumference was 34.4 ± 1.5, 34.2 ± 1.8 and 34.5 ± 1.2 cm (p = 0.287). Neither of these parameters was significantly different even after adjustment for GA at delivery and sex.Conclusions: Our study showed no significant difference in body length or head circumference at birth related to the mode of conception. Previously reported differences in anthropometric parameters in childhood may be related to other factors.

Randomized, placebo-controlled, calcium supplementation trial in pregnant Gambian women accustomed to a low calcium intake: effects on maternal blood pressure and infant growth

Background: Dietary calcium intake in rural Gambian women is very low (∼350 mg/d) compared with international recommendations. Studies have suggested that calcium supplementation of women receiving low-calcium diets significantly reduces risk of pregnancy hypertension.Objective: We tested the effects on blood pressure (BP) of calcium carbonate supplementation (1500 mg Ca/d) in pregnant, rural Gambian women.Design: The study was a randomized, double-blind, parallel, placebo-controlled supplementation trial from 20 wk of gestation (P20) until delivery (calcium: n = 330; placebo; n = 332). BP and anthropometric measures were taken at P20 and then 4 weekly until 36 wk of gestation (P36), and infant anthropometric measures were taken at 2, 13, and 52 wk postdelivery.Results: A total of 525 (calcium: n = 260; placebo: n = 265) women had BP measured at P36 and subsequently delivered a healthy term singleton infant. Mean compliance was 97%, and urinary calcium measures confirmed the group allocation. At P20, the mean (±SD) systolic blood pressure (SBP) was 101.2 ± 9.0 and 102.1 ± 9.3 mm Hg, and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) was 54.5 ± 7.3 and 55.8 ± 7.8 mm Hg, in the calcium and placebo groups, respectively. The intention-to-treat analysis that was adjusted for confounders showed no significant effect of calcium supplementation on the change between P20 and P36 (calcium compared with placebo; mean ± SEM) in SBP (−0.64 ± 0.65%; P = 0.3) or DBP (−0.22 ± 1.15%; P = 0.8). There was no significant effect of supplementation on BP, pregnancy weight gain, weight postpartum, or infant weight, length, and other measures of growth. However, the comparability of the original randomly assigned groups may have been compromised by the exclusion of 20.7% of women from the final analysis.Conclusions: Calcium supplementation did not affect BP in pregnancy. This result may have been because the Gambian women were adapted to a low dietary calcium intake, and/or obesity, high gestational weight gain, high underlying BP, tobacco use, alcohol consumption, and sedentary lifestyles were rare. This trial was registered at the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Register (www.controlled-trials.com/mrct/) as ISRCTN96502494.

Household food insecurity during the pre‐harvest period is associated with respiratory infections, but not stunting among 6–11 month old infants in rural Ghana

Food insecurity is prevalent in rural Ghana, particularly during the months prior to harvest. We examined the association between pre‐harvest food insecurity and infants’ health and nutritional status. The cross‐sectional survey of 333 mothers and their infants aged 6–11 mo living in the Upper Manya Krobo district, included reported household food insecurity (HHFI), anthropometric measurements of infants and mothers, and mothers’ recall of symptoms of infants’ illnesses during the previous seven days. Multiple logistic regressions were conducted to examine how HHFI was associated with stunting and morbidity. Over one‐fifth of households experienced food insecurity in the previous month. Compared to infants in food secure homes, infants living in food insecure homes were twice as likely to experience cough (aOR = 2.26, 95% CI: 1.24 to 4.13), and tended to experience a runny nose (aOR = 1.82, 95% CI: 0.98 to 3.39). HHFI was not associated with diarrhea, fever or stunting. Efforts to improve infant's health status may need to include strategies that improve household food security, particularly during the pre‐harvest period. Funded by IDRC Doctoral Research Award 105938–99906075‐038 and McGill University.

Associations between birth and one year anthropometric measurements and IGF2 and IGF2R genetic variants in African American and Caucasian American infants.

Insulin-like growth factor 2 receptor (IGF2R) and insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) genetic variants have been inconsistently associated with low birth weight and birth length in Caucasian and Asian infants, however few studies have included African Americans (AA). Generalized linear models and logistic regression models were used to examine associations between IGF2R single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) rs629849 and rs8191754, and IGF2 SNP rs680 and infant anthropometric measurements, in a racially diverse birth cohort in Durham County, North Carolina. Caucasian American (CA) carriers of the IGF2R SNP rs629849 were heavier (P = 0.02) and longer (P = 0.003) at birth, however body size at age 1 yr was similar to that of AA. Birth length significantly differed between carriers and non-carriers of the IGF2 rs680 variant in both AA (P = 0.04) and CA infants (P = 0.03). Both AA and CA carriers were 1 cm shorter at birth compared to non-carriers. We found no evidence for an association between rs8191754 and infant anthropometric measurements. Associations between SNPs andone year weight gain were only observed for rs680; CA infant carriers of rs680 variants weighed less than non-carriers at year one (P = 0.03); however, no associations were found in AA infants at year one. Larger studies using ancestral markers are required to disentangle these associations.

Maternal BMI, IGF-I Levels, and Birth Weight in African American and White Infants

At birth, elevated IGF-I levels have been linked to birth weight extremes; high birth weight and low birth weight are risk factors for adult-onset chronic diseases including obesity, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes. We examined associations between plasma IGF-I levels and birth weight among infants born to African American and White obese and nonobese women. Prepregnancy weight and height were assessed among 251 pregnant women and anthropometric measurements of full term infants (≥37 weeks of gestation) were taken at birth. Circulating IGF-I was measured by ELISA in umbilical cord blood plasma. Linear regression models were utilized to examine associations between birth weight and high IGF-I, using the bottom two tertiles as referents. Compared with infants with lower IGF-I levels (≤3rd tertile), those with higher IGF-I levels (>3rd tertile) were 130 g heavier at birth, (β-coefficient = 230, se = 58.0, P = 0.0001), after adjusting for gender, race/ethnicity, gestational age, delivery route, maternal BMI and smoking. Stratified analyses suggested that these associations are more pronounced in infants born to African American women and women with BMI ≥30 kg/m2; the cross product term for IGF-I and maternal BMI was statistically significant (P ≤ 0.0004). Our findings suggest that the association between IGF-I levels and birth weight depends more on maternal obesity than African American race/ethnicity.

Brief communication: Chronic undernutrition is associated with higher mucosal antibody levels among ariaal infants of northern kenya

The immune activation that occurs with infection diverts energy from growth and can contribute to poor nutritional outcomes in developing infants and children. This study investigates the association between salivary immunoglobulin A (IgA) levels and growth outcomes among Ariaal infants of northern Kenya. The Ariaal are a group of settled northern Kenyan pastoralists who are under considerable nutritional stress. Two hundred and thirty-nine breastfeeding Ariaal infants were recruited into the study and underwent anthropometric measurement and saliva collection, with mothers providing individual and household characteristics for them via questionnaire. Infant saliva samples were analyzed with an ELISA for IgA in the United States. Infant anthropometric measurements were converted to height-for-age z-scores (HAZ) using the WHO Child Growth Standards. Based on multivariate models performed in SAS 9.2 two main results emerge: 1) low HAZ, an indicator of chronic undernutrition, was significantly associated with higher IgA concentration (β = -0.12, P = 0.050) and 2) boys had significantly higher IgA levels than girls (β = 0.25, P = 0.039). Although there was not a significant interactive effect between HAZ and sex, the two variables confound each other, with boys having significantly lower HAZ values than girls do. In addition, maternal breastmilk IgA was significantly associated with infant salivary IgA, indicating that maternal effects play a role in infant IgA development. Future research will unravel the three-way association between sex, stunting, and immune function in the Ariaal community.

Neurodevelopmental status of HIV-exposed but uninfected children: A pilot study

Introduction. HIV affects children both directly and indirectly, with evidence of increased infectious mortality and morbidity in the HIV-exposed but uninfected (HEU) infant. There is little published research on neurodevelopmental outcome of HEU infants in Africa. Following the introduction of successful prevention of mother-to-child transmission programmes, it has become important to determine whether differences exist between HEU infants and infants born to HIV-negative mothers (HUU) in order to guide current management policies of this rapidly growing group of infants. Objectives. To compare the developmental outcome of infants exposed to HIV in utero who remained uninfected (HEU) with that of infants unexposed to HIV in utero (HUU). Methodology. This was a prospective, blinded, hospital-based study. Infants aged between 17 and 19 months were assessed on the Griffiths Mental Developmental Scales (GMDS). Birth history, previous hospitalisation, maternal and infant characteristics, antiretroviral exposure, anthropometric measurements and abnormal clinical findings were documented. Results. Of the original 55 infants enrolled at 2 weeks of age, 37 (17 HEU and 20 HUU) underwent neurological and developmental assessment. There were no significant differences between the groups with regard to the GMDS general quotient or other subscales, apart from the Personal/social subscale, where the HEU group performed significantly more poorly than the HUU participants (p=0.026). This difference is probably a result of cultural differences between the groups, as 76% of HEU and only 15% of HUU participants were of Xhosa origin. Discussion. There was no difference in neurodevelopmental outcome at 18 months between the HEU and HUU groups.

Infant and young child feeding practices and child undernutrition in Bangladesh: insights from nationally representative data

To determine the association between indicators of infant and young child feeding (IYCF) and anthropometric measures of nutritional status among children aged 0-23 months in a nationally representative data set. Data from the 2007 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey were used. Analyses were conducted using multiple linear regression and logistic regression analyses adjusted for the complex survey design of the survey, controlling for child, maternal and household characteristics, and including regional dummy variables. Bangladesh. Pairs (n 2096) of last born infants and their mothers. Exclusive breast-feeding under 6 months of age was associated with higher weight-for-height Z-score (effect size (ES) = 0·29; P < 0·05). Appropriate complementary feeding in children aged 6-8 months was associated with higher height-for-age Z-score (HAZ; ES = 0·63; P < 0·01) and higher weight-for-age Z-score (WAZ; ES = 0·30; P < 0·05). Higher dietary diversity index (DDI) was associated with higher HAZ (ES = 0·08; P < 0·01 for every 1 point higher DDI) and higher WAZ (ES = 0·04; P < 0·05). Children who achieved minimum diet diversity had higher HAZ (ES = 0·20; P < 0·05). Logistic regression models confirmed that exclusive breast-feeding was protective against wasting and DDI was protective against stunting and underweight. Our results highlight the importance of IYCF practices as determinants of child growth outcomes in this context, and reinforce the need for interventions that address the spectrum of IYCF practices, from exclusive breast-feeding to age-appropriate complementary feeding, especially diet diversity, in efforts to improve nutrition of infants and young children.

The relationship between ghrelin and adiponectin levels in breast milk and infant serum and growth of infants during early postnatal life

Ghrelin and adiponectin have been found in breast milk and are considered to take part in the regulation of growth and energy metabolism of infants. Our aims were to determine ghrelin and adiponectin levels in breast milk and serum samples of mothers and their infants, and to investigate the relationship between their levels and anthropometry of newborn infants during early postnatal life. Total and active ghrelin and adiponectin levels were studied in breast milk, and the serum samples of 25 healthy lactating women and their healthy fullterm infants were taken at the 1st and 4th months of life. Anthropometric measurements of infants were also performed during the study period. Breast milk and infant serum active ghrelin levels were found to be significantly increased at the 4th month of life compared with 1st month levels (p < 0.05). Maternal serum total ghrelin and infant serum adiponectin levels were found to be significantly reduced at the 4th month of life (p < 0.05). Breast milk active ghrelin levels were higher than the infant and maternal serum active ghrelin at the 1st and 4th months (p < 0.05). There was a negative significant correlation between the level of infant serum active ghrelin levels and BMI of infants at the 1st month. A positive significant correlation was found between the level of 1st month infant serum adiponectin levels and weight gain of infants during the study period. Fourth month infant serum adiponectin were also positively correlated with weight and BMI of infants at the 4th month and the weight gain during study period. There was a positive significant correlation between the level of 4th month breast milk active ghrelin and weight gain of infants during the study period. Ghrelin and adiponectin are involved in postnatal growth of infants. Ghrelin in breast milk also seems to be related to the growth of infants during early postnatal life. The sources of these peptides in breast milk are probably both maternal serum and breast tissue itself.

Zinc and copper concentrations in Breastmilk at the second month of lactation

We aimed to investigate zinc and copper concentrations in breast milk at two months postpartum and the relationship between these concentrations and the characteristics of mother infant dyads. A total of 142 mothers were enrolled. The median concentrations of breast milk Zinc and Copper were 625 ug/L and 239 ug/L, respectively. These concentrations were not related to maternal age, parity, smoking habits, iron and vitamin/mineral supplementation, birthweight, gestational age, or feeding type. The concentrations had no effect on anthropometric measurements of infants at two months of age.

Birth Size and Childhood Growth as Determinants of Physical Functioning in Older Age: The Helsinki Birth Cohort Study

The study reports on the associations of infant and childhood anthropometric measurements, early growth, and the combined effect of birth weight and childhood body mass index with older age physical functioning among 1,999 individuals born in 1934-1944 and belonging to the Helsinki Birth Cohort Study. Physical functioning was assessed by the Short Form 36 scale. Anthropometric data from infancy and childhood were retrieved from medical records. The risk of lower Short Form 36 physical functioning at the mean age of 61.6 years was increased for those with birth weight less than 2.5 kg compared with those weighing 3.0-3.5 kg at birth (odds ratio (OR) = 2.73, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.57, 4.72). The gain in weight from birth to age 2 years was associated with decreased risk of lower physical functioning for a 1-standard deviation increase (OR = 0.84, 95% CI: 0.75, 0.94). The risk of lower physical functioning was highest for individuals with birth weight in the lowest third and body mass index at 11 years of age in the highest third compared with those whose birth weight was in the middle third and body mass index at age 11 years was in the highest third (OR = 3.08, 95% CI: 1.83, 5.19). The increasing prevalence of obesity at all ages and the aging of populations warrant closer investigation of the role of weight trajectories in old age functional decline.

Características nutricionales de los recién nacidos de madres con sobrepeso y obesidad

Introduction Maternal nutritional status is an important factor of adequate intrauterine growth and neonatal weight. The aim of this study is to evaluate the relationship between pre-gestational BMI (Body Mass Index) and breastfeeding duration, as well as infant anthropometric measurements during their first six months of life. Materials and methods Anthropometric measurements and the type of feeding were evaluated in a representative sample of 1,547 newborns from our population during 2009, according to their maternal BMI, and also in a sub-cohort of 759 infants followed up to 6 months of life. Results A total of 72.9% of women had a normal weight, 18.7% were overweight and 8.4% obese. Women with a BMI ≥ 25 kg/m 2 had lower weight gain during pregnancy ( P < .001), lower socioeconomic and cultural level ( P < .001), and their infants had higher weight at delivery ( P = .003) and at 6 months of life, with no differences in body length. Newborn weight increased in relation to maternal BMI, but over 35 kg/m2 it decreased progressively ( P < .001). Breastfeeding prevalence in obese women was 58.5% at hospital postpartum discharge, and 8.6% at six months of life; as opposed to 70.8% and 13.9%, respectively in women with normal BMI. Conclusions In our sample, maternal obesity is associated with a low socioeconomic and cultural level, higher infant weight at delivery and at 6 months of life, and less prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding; all of them nutritional risk factors in the short and long term.

Effects of a low–glycemic load diet in overweight and obese pregnant women: a pilot randomized controlled trial

The optimal diet for pregnancy that is complicated by excessive weight is unknown. We aimed to examine the effects of a low-glycemic load (low-GL) diet in overweight and obese pregnant women. We randomly assigned 46 overweight or obese pregnant women to receive a low-GL or a low-fat diet. Participants received carbohydrate-rich foods, fats, and snack foods through home delivery or study visits. The primary outcome was birth weight z score. Other endpoints included infant anthropometric measurements, gestational duration, maternal weight gain, and maternal metabolic parameters. There were no significant differences in birth weight z score or other measures of infant adiposity between groups. However, in the low-GL compared with the low-fat group, gestational duration was longer (mean ± SD: 39.3 ± 1.1 compared with 37.9 ± 3.1 wk; P = 0.05) and fewer deliveries occurred at ≤ 38.0 wk (13% compared with 48%, P = 0.02; with exclusion of planned cesarean deliveries: 5% compared with 53%; P = 0.002). Adjusted head circumference was greater in the low-GL group (35.0 ± 0.8 compared with 34.2 ± 1.3 cm, P = 0.01). Women in the low-GL group had smaller increases in triglycerides [median (interquartile range): 49 (19, 70) compared with 93 (34, 129) mg/dL; P = 0.03] and total cholesterol [13 (0, 36) compared with 33 (22, 56) mg/dL, P = 0.04] and a greater decrease in C-reactive protein [-2.5 (-5.5, -0.7) compared with -0.4 (-1.4, 1.5) mg/dL, P = 0.007]. A low-GL diet resulted in longer pregnancy duration, greater infant head circumference, and improved maternal cardiovascular risk factors. Large-scale studies are warranted to evaluate whether dietary intervention during pregnancy aimed at lowering GL may be useful in the prevention of prematurity and other adverse maternal and infant outcomes. This trial is registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00364403.

Determinants of early ponderal and statural growth in full-term infants in the EDEN mother-child cohort study

Growth velocity in the first months of postnatal life has been associated with later overweight and obesity. We analyzed prenatal and postnatal factors in association with weight, length, and growth velocities in the first 3 mo of life. We estimated weight, length, and instantaneous weight- and length-growth velocities (in g/d and mm/d) in 1418 term infants at 1 and 3 mo of age and evaluated the following potential determinants: maternal prepregnancy body mass index (BMI), 1-h plasma glucose concentrations during pregnancy, smoking, socioeconomic status, parity, paternal BMI, parental heights, and infant feeding, gestational age, and sex. Maternal obesity and plasma glucose concentrations were associated with the weights and lengths of offspring at birth but not at 1 and 3 mo after birth. In contrast, there was no association between paternal BMI and anthropometric measures of offspring at birth, but by 3 mo of age infants of obese fathers had significantly higher weights and weight-growth velocities than did infants of fathers with a normal BMI. Maternal weight gain was a significant predictor of weight at birth and 3 mo of age. Exclusively breastfed infants had a slower weight-growth velocity as early as 1 mo of age compared with exclusively formula-fed infants. In the first 3 mo of life, the positive associations between maternal obesity, plasma glucose concentrations, and infant anthropometric measures at birth seem to progressively fade away, whereas the emerging association with paternal BMI may indicate an early postnatal influence of paternal genetics. Among the determinants we evaluated, some are potentially modifiable, such as maternal gestational weight gain and infant feeding. The identification of optimal patterns of growth remains crucial before providing any clinical recommendations.

Growth and Body Composition of Peruvian Infants in a Periurban Setting

Previous growth studies of Peruvian children have featured high stunting rates and limited information about body composition. We aimed to characterize anthropometric measures of Peruvian infants 0 to 12 months of age in relation to the international growth references and biological, environmental, and socioeconomic factors. Infants (n = 232) were followed longitudinally from birth through 12 months of age from a prenatal zinc supplementation trial conducted in Lima, Peru, between 1995 and 1997. Anthropometric measures of growth and body composition were obtained at enrollment from mothers and monthly through 1 year of age from infants. Weekly morbidity and dietary intake surveillance was carried out during the second half of infancy. The prevalence rates of stunting, underweight, and wasting did not exceed 4% based on the World Health Organization growth references. Infants of mothers from high-altitude regions had larger chest circumference (p = .006) and greater length (p = .06) by 12 months. Significant predictors of growth and body composition throughout infancy were age, sex, anthropometric measurements at birth, breastfeeding, maternal anthropometric measurements, primiparity, prevalence of diarrhea among children, and the altitude of the region of maternal origin. No associations were found for maternal education, asset ownership, or sanitation and hygiene factors. Peruvian infants in this urban setting had lower rates of stunting than expected. Proximal and familial conditions influenced growth throughout infancy.