Anthropometric Foot Research Articles

Ultrasound assessment of talar cartilage thickness measurements in asymptomatic subjects with pes planus and its relationship with anthropometric parameters

IntroductionIndividuals with pes planus may have alterations in talar cartilage thickness due to changes in lower extremity alignment. The aim of this study was to measure the talar cartilage thickness of subjects with pes planus and compare the results with those of healthy controls. Another aim of the present study was to evaluate its relationship with anthropometric foot parameters. MethodsThis cross-sectional study included 48 individuals (16 males and 32 females) in the pes planus group and 48 individuals in the healthy control group (14 males and 34 females) based on the Navicular Drop (ND) test and the Foot Posture Index (FPI). Talar cartilage thickness (TCT) was measured with ultrasound. Anthropometric foot parameters of the individuals, such as foot length and foot width, were evaluated using a podoscope. ResultsTCT was higher in participants with pes planus compared to the control group (dominant side, p = 0.006; non-dominant side, p = 0.002). Foot width and length were similar in both groups for the dominant and non-dominant feet (p > 0.05). TCT on the dominant foot was positively correlated with the FPI score (r = 0.205, p = 0.045), ND score (r = 0.297, p = 0.003), foot width (r = 0.244, p = 0.017) and foot length (r = 0.253, p = 0.013). On the other hand, TCT on the non-dominant side was positively correlated with the FPI score (r = 0.235, p = 0.021), ND score (r = 0.363, p < 0.001), foot width (r = 0.270, p = 0.008) and length (r = 0.303, p = 0.003). ConclusionThe talar cartilage of patients with pes planus seems to be thicker, and this is generally related to body weight, body mass index, foot anthropometrics, and posture characteristics. Level of evidenceLevel III, diagnostic comparative study.

Anthropometric measurements of the foot cannot predict the screw diameter for fifth metatarsal fractures intramedullary fixation

PurposeThe present study aimed to evaluate the accuracy of anthropometric foot measurements in predicting the diameter of the intramedullary screw for fifth metatarsal fracture fixation. Secondary aim was to identify whether the fifth metatarsal intramedullary canal diameter is correlated to the fifth metatarsal length and the foot dimensions.MethodsIn 29 cadaveric feet, the maximum length of the plantar surface of the foot (PL) and the perimeter of the foot at the level of the fifth metatarsal base (PBFM) were measured using a measuring tape. Subsequently, the fifth metatarsal was excised. Using Computed Tomography scan, the metatarsal length (FML), and the horizontal (HDI) and vertical diameter (VDI) at the isthmus level were measured. The HDI values were grouped in 5 mm increments to correspond to the recommended screw diameter (RSD) for intramedullary fixation. A univariate linear regression analysis considered RSD and HDI as the dependent variables and FML, PL, PBFM as the independent variables. A multivariate regression analysis was performed to examine the predictive value of the two anthropometric measurements. A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.ResultsAll six univariate analyses revealed that the dependent variable was significantly correlated with the independent variable. However, the multivariate regression models showed that the anthropometric measurements were not significantly correlated with the RSD and HDI.ConclusionThe current study found an association between the fifth metatarsal intramedullary canal diameter and the fifth metatarsal length and foot anthropometric dimensions. However, the anthropometric measurements of the foot presented a low predictive value for the decision of an intramedullary screw diameter in the treatment of fractures of the base of the fifth metatarsal.

Stature estimation from various three-dimensional anthropometric foot measurements of Taiwanese female population

Predicting a victim's stature from a dismembered body or human remains is a challenge in forensic practice. Lower extremity dimensions, such as the foot, are essential measurements for stature estimation. However, there is no available information on stature prediction generated from Taiwanese female foot measurements in the forensic science field. Hence, this study aims to investigate the correlations between various foot dimensions and stature and develop population-specific stature-prediction equations for Taiwanese females. Bilateral data of 12 foot dimensions were collected from 1058 females aged from 18 to 59 years using three-dimensional scanning. A pairedt-test is performed to evaluate bilateral differences, and linear and stepwise regression analyses are performed to generate stature predictions. The results indicate significant bilateral differences in the majority of the foot measurements. All measurements are positively correlated with stature (p < .05). Higher correlation coefficients with stature are observed in length-related foot dimensions, followed by girth- and breadth-related dimensions. The foot length on both sides is selected as an accurate and reliable parameter to conduct linear stature-predicting regression for Taiwanese females because it exhibits the highest explanation rate (right: 54.1%; left: 50.8%) and lowest estimating standard error (right: 3.883 cm, left: 4.020 cm) among the 12 foot measurements. Based on the results of the stepwise regression analysis, several stature-prediction equations consisting of various foot measurements are established. The findings of this study can provide helpful information for predicting the stature of Taiwanese females from fragmentary foot remains.

Development and evaluation of a dual density insole for people standing for long periods of time at work

BackgroundAppropriate footwear is important for those who stand for prolonged periods of time at work, enabling them to remain comfortable, healthy and safe. Preferences for different footwear cushioning or hardness are often person specific and one shoe or insole will not be the choice for all. The aim of this study was to develop a range of insole options to maintain comfort during long periods of standing at work and test insole material preferences in the workplace.MethodsThe study consisted of two parts. Part one evaluated 9 insoles of the same geometry that varied in hardness under 2 different plantar regions (n = 34). Insole preference, plantar pressure and selected anthropometric foot measures were taken. Three insole designs based on the most preferred options were identified from this part.In part two, these three insoles were evaluated with 22 workers immediately after trying them on (1 min) and after a working day. Foot anthropometric measures and subjective questions concerning material hardness preferences and self-reported foot characteristics were used to investigate whether either had a relationship with insole preference.ResultsPart one found insole preference predominantly varied according to material hardness under the medial arch rather than the heel/forefoot. Softer material under the heel and forefoot was associated with a reduction in peak pressures in these regions (p < 0.05). The most preferred insole had lower pressures under the hallux and first metatarsal phalangeal joint, and greater pressures and contact area under the medial midfoot (p < 0.05) compared to the least preferred insole. Height and foot anthropometrics were related to insole preference.In part two, under real world conditions, insole preference changed for 65% of participants between the immediate assessment (1 min) and after a whole workday, with dorsum height related to the latter (p < 0.05). Subjective questions for self-assessed arch height and footwear feel identified 66.7% of the insole preferences after 1 day at work, compared to 36% using immediate assessment of insole preference.ConclusionPreference for material hardness varies underneath the medial arch of the foot and is time dependent. Simple foot measures and questions about comfort can guide selection of preferred insoles.

Characteristics of Selected Anthropometric Foot Indicators in Physically Active Students.

The aim of this study was to determine the type of medial longitudinal arch (MLA) in students of Krakow universities, investigate the relationship between physical activity and the shaping of the feet, and examine the relationship between hallux valgus angle and the type of footwear chosen most often. The study group consisted of 120 students, of which 56 respondents were students of the University School of Physical Education in Krakow, whereas the remaining 64 respondents were students of the Pedagogical University of Krakow. To evaluate the MLA, a podoscope was used, which allowed us to determine the length and width of the foot, and calculation of the Clarke angle, heel angle γ, and the angle of hallux valgus. All students were also subjected to a measurement of body weight and height. There was a statistically significant relationship between physical activity and the Clarke angle in the group of women studying at the University School of Physical Education. There was no correlation between the hallux valgus angle and the type of footwear chosen most often in the research groups. The most frequently diagnosed type of longitudinal and transverse arch foot in the research group was normal MLA. There was no relationship between physical activity and transverse arch foot in any of the research groups.

Gender differences of foot characteristics in older Japanese adults using a 3D foot scanner.

BackgroundKnowledge of gender differences in foot shape assists shoe manufactures with designing appropriate shoes for men and women. Although gender differences in foot shapes are relatively known among young men and women, less is known about how the older men and women’s feet differ in shape. A recent development in foot shape assessment is the use of 3D foot scanners. To our knowledge this technology has yet to be used to examine gender differences in foot shape of Japanese older adults.MethodsThis cross-sectional study included 151 older men (74.5 ± 5.6 years) and 140 older women (73.9 ± 5.1 years) recruited in Kasama City, Japan. Foot variables were measured in sitting and standing positions using Dream GP Incorporated’s 3D foot scanner, Footstep PRO (Osaka, Japan). Scores were analyzed as both raw and normalized to truncated foot length using independent samples t-test and analysis of covariance, respectively.ResultsIn men, the measurement values for navicular height, first and fifth toe and instep heights, ball and heel width, ball girth, arch height index (just standing), arch rigidity index and instep girth were significantly greater than the women’s, whereas the first toe angle, in both sitting and standing positions was significantly smaller. However, after normalizing, the differences in ball width, heel width, height of first and fifth toes in both sitting and standing and ball girth in sitting position were nonsignificant. According to Cohen’s d, among all the foot variables, the following had large effect sizes in both sitting and standing positions: truncated foot length, instep, navicular height, foot length, ball girth, ball width, heel width and instep girth.ConclusionThis study provides evidence of anthropometric foot variations between older men and women. These differences need to be considered when manufacturing shoes for older adults.

Anthropometric Foot Changes During Pregnancy

Women's feet change during pregnancy owing to hormonal and anatomical changes, thus having a strong influence on the decrease in their quality of life during pregnancy. This preliminary study aimed to value the anthropometric and positional changes that affect their feet. Ten pregnant women were measured during their gestational period to analyze the anthropometric changes in their feet from the 12th week of pregnancy. We examined the changes that occured in foot length, forefoot width, arch of the foot height, and the fixed position of the foot by using the Foot Posture Index, and we analyzed three intervals corresponding to pregnancy weeks 12, 24, and 34. The most significant finding, with a reliability rate of 95%, is the decrease in internal arch height, which descends 0.65 mm (0.0394 inches) on average at the final stage of the pregnancy period. This change happened in 18 of the feet analyzed, tending toward pronation according to the measure provided by the Foot Posture Index, with a change of 3.78 points on this scale. The foot of the pregnant woman tends to flatten during gestational weeks 12 to 34, taking a more pronated posture, and the anthropometric changes in late pregnancy result in increases in foot length and forefoot width, changes that seem to be moderate.

Prediction of Stature and Gender From Foot Measurements: Egyptian Versus Malaysian

Lately, anthropometric foot measurements had been considered a specific tool for individual identification despite different ethnical variations. The present study aimed to estimate the predictive value of foot measurements to determine stature, gender and race in samples of Egyptian and Malaysian students. Studied groups included Egyptian group (57 students: 26 males and 31 females) and Malaysian group (54 students: 24 males and 30 females). The following measurements were recorded for each foot in centimeters: body stature, foot length, foot width, heel width, medial malleolus height and lateral malleolus height. The study proved the presence of statistical significant difference in foot measurements in males than females for both groups. The highest correlation was observed in foot width for Egyptian males and Malaysian females while there was no significant correlation for foot measurements in Egyptian females and Malaysian males when stature and foot measurement relations were evaluated. Equations were obtained by using linear regression analysis for stature prediction and logistic regression analysis for gender and race prediction. Gender prediction equation can help in determining the gender with 93 % accuracy and 79.6 % accuracy for foot measurements in Egyptian and Malaysian groups respectively and as regards the racial difference, foot length and body stature were the main determinants with 70.8% accuracy for each group. In conclusion, Foot measurements yielded important predictive tool for identification of stature, gender and race.

The Effect of Gender on Foot Anthropometrics in Older People

Some questions remain regarding the anthropometric differences between the feet of young men and women, but the gap is much greater when dealing with older adults. No studies were found concerning these differences in an exclusively older adult population, which makes it difficult to manufacture shoes based on the specific anthropometric measurements of the older adult population and according to gender differences. To identify differences between the anthropometric foot variables of older men and women. Cross-sectional. 154 older women (69.0 ± 6.8 y) and 131 older men (69.0 ± 6.5 y). The foot evaluations comprised the variables of width, perimeter, height, length, 1st and 5th metatarsophalangeal angles, the Arch Index (AI), and the Foot Posture Index (FPI). A data analysis was performed using t test and a post hoc power analysis. Women showed significantly higher values for the width and perimeter of the toes, width of the metatarsal heads, and width of the heel and presented significantly lower values for the height of the dorsal foot after normalization of the data to foot length. The 1st and 5th metatarsophalangeal angles were smaller in the men. There were no differences between men and women with respect to AI and FPI. Overall, the current study shows evidence of differences between some of the anthropometric foot variables of older men and women that must be taken into account for the manufacture of shoes for older adults.

Prediction of Anthropometric Foot Characteristics in Children

The establishment of growth reference values is needed in pediatric practice where pathologic conditions can have a detrimental effect on the growth and development of the pediatric foot. This study aims to use multiple regression to evaluate the effects of multiple predictor variables (height, age, body mass, and gender) on anthropometric characteristics of the peripubescent foot. Two hundred children aged 9 to 12 years were recruited, and three anthropometric measurements of the pediatric foot were recorded (foot length, forefoot width, and navicular height). Multiple regression analysis was conducted, and coefficients for gender, height, and body mass all had significant relationships for the prediction of forefoot width and foot length (P < or = .05, r > or = 0.7). The coefficients for gender and body mass were not significant for the prediction of navicular height (P > or = .05), whereas height was (P < or = .05). Normative growth reference values and prognostic regression equations are presented for the peripubescent foot.

Anthropometric Foot Structure of Peripubescent Children with Excessive versus Normal Body Mass

A variety of musculoskeletal problems have been associated with excessive body mass in children, including structural foot problems. Two hundred children aged 9 to 12 years were recruited to evaluate the effect of body mass on foot structure. Three reliable anthropometric measures were recorded: foot length, forefoot width, and navicular height. Following independent sample t test analysis of the data, significant differences were found for the three anthropometric variables when children with normal body mass were compared with those with excessive body mass. The research indicates that foot length and width increase with body mass, whereas navicular height drops. Excessive body mass affects the discrete anthropometric structure of the peripubescent foot. With the growing concern about childhood obesity, further research is essential to develop a comprehensive understanding of the issues identified and to quantify the findings presented here.

Optimal foot shape for a passive dynamic biped

Passive walking dynamics describe the motion of a biped that is able to “walk” down a shallow slope without any actuation or control. Instead, the walker relies on gravitational and inertial effects to propel itself forward, exhibiting a gait quite similar to that of humans. These purely passive models depend on potential energy to overcome the energy lost when the foot impacts the ground. Previous research has demonstrated that energy loss at heel-strike can vary widely for a given speed, depending on the nature of the collision. The point of foot contact with the ground (relative to the hip) can have a significant effect: semi-circular (round) feet soften the impact, resulting in much smaller losses than point-foot walkers. Collisional losses are also lower if a single impulse is broken up into a series of smaller impulses that gradually redirect the velocity of the center of mass rather than a single abrupt impulse. Using this principle, a model was created where foot-strike occurs over two impulses, “heel-strike” and “toe-strike,” representative of the initial impact of the heel and the following impact as the ball of the foot strikes the ground. Having two collisions with the flat-foot model did improve efficiency over the point-foot model. Representation of the flat-foot walker as a rimless wheel helped to explain the optimal flat-foot shape, driven by symmetry of the virtual spoke angles. The optimal long period foot shape of the simple passive walking model was not very representative of the human foot shape, although a reasonably anthropometric foot shape was predicted by the short period solution.

Changes in variability predict local stability changes in passive dynamic walkers

Passive walking dynamics describe the motion of a biped that is able to “walk” down a shallow slope without any actuation or control. Instead, the walker relies on gravitational and inertial effects to propel itself forward, exhibiting a gait quite similar to that of humans. These purely passive models depend on potential energy to overcome the energy lost when the foot impacts the ground. Previous research has demonstrated that energy loss at heel-strike can vary widely for a given speed, depending on the nature of the collision. The point of foot contact with the ground (relative to the hip) can have a significant effect: semi-circular (round) feet soften the impact, resulting in much smaller losses than point-foot walkers. Collisional losses are also lower if a single impulse is broken up into a series of smaller impulses that gradually redirect the velocity of the center of mass rather than a single abrupt impulse. Using this principle, a model was created where foot-strike occurs over two impulses, “heel-strike” and “toe-strike,” representative of the initial impact of the heel and the following impact as the ball of the foot strikes the ground. Having two collisions with the flat-foot model did improve efficiency over the point-foot model. Representation of the flat-foot walker as a rimless wheel helped to explain the optimal flat-foot shape, driven by symmetry of the virtual spoke angles. The optimal long period foot shape of the simple passive walking model was not very representative of the human foot shape, although a reasonably anthropometric foot shape was predicted by the short period solution.

Power lawn mowers: evaluation of anthropometric foot probes : Persensky, J.J., and Ramey, A.M. National Bureau of Standards, Washington DC, USA Report No NBSIR 77–1294, May 1977, 51 pp

Power lawn mowers: evaluation of anthropometric foot probes : Persensky, J.J., and Ramey, A.M. National Bureau of Standards, Washington DC, USA Report No NBSIR 77–1294, May 1977, 51 pp