Anthropological Evidence Research Articles

THE MALIGNED, MALTREATED MADU: Female Experiences of Polygyny in Three Romantic Syair1

This article considers the theme of female conflict within the context of polygynous marriages in the traditional Malay poems Syair Bidasari, Syair Selindung Delima and Syair Yatim Nestapa. The poems' common foregrounding of female concerns, in particular the problems of madu or co-wives engendered by husband sharing, are considered within the context of their popular female reception. A comparison of the poems' treatment of this theme from a female perspective in contrast to other more prevalent male-oriented pieces of literature, poses questions as to the dominant and more latent discourses discernible in the works. It is argued that while the poems do not challenge the male right to polygyny, they do seek to promote an understanding of the difficulties such marriages may entail for women. Situating these poems within their literary and cultural contexts, this article seeks to ascertain whether a gender-sensitive interpretation is warranted in light of historical and anthropological evidence concerning women's experiences in polygynous marriages.

Frequency of cystathionine β-synthase 844INS68 polymorphism in Southern Iran

Iranian population with an Indo-European origin is one of the oldest populations in the world. Historical evidence suggests the close similarity in the origin of Iranian, European and north Indian population. However, there are few anthropological and genetic evidences on this subject. This study, which is the first report from Iran, was performed to investigate the genetic origin of Iranian population using a polymorphism in Cystathionine beta synthase (CBS) gene known as 844INS68bp in this respect, genomic DNA was extracted from the whole blood of 480 healthy normal blood donors referred to Fars Blood Transfusion Center, using a salting out method. The fragment containing 844INS68bp was amplified, the normal fragment was 174 bp and the fragment containing the insertion was 242 bp in length. Results indicated that 418 (87.08%) out of 480 individuals had a normal (N/N) genotype, 59 (12.29%) individuals were heterozygote (N/I) and 3 (0.63%) had homozygote a mutated genotype (I/I). The total frequency of 844INS68bp allele was found 6.8% which is similar to with the reported in White Caucasians. Comparison of the genotype of this study with the polymorphism in other populations revealed that Southern Iranian population has a great similarity with other Caucasians populations' especially South Italy and North America while differed from East Asian and African populations. These results are in agreement with the result of other studied polymorphisms. Therefore, despite the great admixture of Iranian population with the neighboring non-Caucasian populations during the time, Iranian population still share a genetic background with other Caucasian populations.

Meat in the human diet: An anthropological perspective

Human ancestral diets changed substantially approximately four to five million years ago with major climatic changes creating open grassland environments. We developed a larger brain balanced by a smaller, simpler gastrointestinal tract requiring higher-quality foods based around meat protein and fat. Anthropological evidence from cranio-dental features and fossil stable isotope analysis indicates a growing reliance on meat consumption during human evolution. Study of hunter-gatherer societies in recent times shows an extreme reliance on hunted and fished animal foods for survival. Optimal foraging theory shows that wild plant foods in general give an inadequate energy return for survival, whereas the top-ranking food items for energy return are large hunted animals. Numerous evolutionary adaptations in humans indicate high reliance on meat consumption, including poor taurine production, lack of ability to chain elongate plant fatty acids and the co-evolution of parasites related to dietary meat.

Linking anthropological analysis and epidemiological evidence: Formulating a narrative of HIV transmission in Acholiland of northern Uganda

For twenty years, a region of northern Uganda known as Acholiland has been heavily affected by war, leading to the formation of internally displaced people's camps, rape, transactional sex and child abductions. While it is clear that the war has had onerous consequences for the health of the Acholi people, the specific impact of the war on HIV transmission remains unclear, as the epidemiological evidence presents an ambiguous picture of HIV prevalence patterns. Other than a few non-governmental organization reports, very little qualitative data exists about the impact of HIV on the Acholi population. Attempting to formulate a clearer narrative of HIV transmission in Acholiland, this paper jointly analyses the historical and political context of the Acholi people and the war, the epidemiologic evidence of HIV prevalence patterns, and the ethnographic perspectives of Acholi healthcare workers and patients living with HIV/AIDS. Juxtaposing these sources of information allows for the emergence of a rich understanding of HIV in Acholiland. It is argued that three specific forms of violence – physical, symbolic and structural – create vulnerability to HIV infection in Acholiland, although to variable degrees dependent on location. The ethnographic evidence presented regarding HIV's impact on Acholiland suggests that an incorporation of historical, political, cultural and social factors must form the backbone of efforts both to understand HIV transmission and design strategies for curbing the epidemic in war settings.

Historical Indigenous use of aquatic resources in Australia's Murray‐Darling Basin, and its implications for river management

Summary Indigenous people demonstrably lived along rivers and around lakes and wetlands of Australia's Murray‐Darling Basin in pre‐European times. Waterways were, and continue to be, of major significance to the society and culture of Aboriginal peoples throughout Australia. Historically, they exploited most of the fauna – from mussels and crayfish, to fish and birds – and either ate, or used for other purposes, many species of aquatic plants. Such practices placed them in the role of environmental modifiers, a role played by all human groups from both past and present. They built sophisticated fish traps, cut gaps in river banks to allow fish to move on to floodplains, and there is evidence that they practised a form of fish culture by creating small impoundments in which small fish could live and grow in normally ephemeral tributary streams away from predatory larger fish. Knowledge of the numbers of Aboriginal people inhabiting the riverine regions of the Murray‐Darling Basin are sketchy, but at times large groups congregated for cultural reasons, facilitating fishing with extensively engineered fish traps, such as that at Brewarrina, on the Barwon River in New South Wales. At other times, densities may have been about 0.5 person per river kilometre, although this was certainly not evenly distributed and the calculation postdated deaths from smallpox. From archaeological and anthropological evidence, aquatic fauna and flora would have constituted between about 30% and 100% of the diets of Indigenous people historically, depending on season and location. As such, Indigenous people were very much a part of the ecology of aquatic ecosystems and their effects may have been profound. Despite this, their role in influencing these ecosystems has largely been ignored by contemporary freshwater ecologists and managers. Current management practices do not seem to have considered the loss of this component of riverine ecosystems, and there is little debate about how the historical part that Indigenous people played in shaping these systems and their biota might be incorporated into management generally.

International Trade, E-Collaboration and World Peace

Anthropological evidence suggests that the human species has evolved what could be called a over millions of years of Darwinian adaptation, where trade acts as a social catalyst and thus as a suppressor of violent conflict among trading groups. Yet, the geographical and cultural separation between modern groups engaged in international trade makes it difficult for the trading instinct to achieve its evolutionarily adaptive goal. The trading instinct notion implies that trade has a social as well as a utilitarian purpose. The social purpose is to curb violence among trading groups. Without enough natural human interaction it is unlikely that the trading instinct will achieve its social purpose, even though it may achieve its utilitarian one, namely of economically beneficial international exchange of needed goods or services. Since the more face-to-face like a communication medium is, the higher its degree of naturalness, non-face-to-face international trade interactions may benefit the least from its potential social benefits. This is arguably a problematic state of affairs, since it appears that the greatest potential for conflict in modern society is between groups that are located in different countries. E-collaboration tools that increase the naturalness of electronic trade interactions are presented as enablers of international trade that can go some way toward solving this problem.

NEW WORLD CRANIAL DEFORMATION PRACTICES

Throughout history, prehistoric and even some contemporary civilizations have practiced various forms of intentional and unintentional cranial deformation. Plagiocephaly can be the result of craniosynostosis, infant positioning, or other unintentional or intentional deformation. We reviewed the medical and anthropological literature and the anthropological collections of Arizona State University and the San Diego Museum of Man for evidence of cranial deformation and its possible physiological and cognitive side effects. Evidence of cranial shaping was also sought among art or stone work from representative cultures. The anthropological record and literature attest to the presence of much more severe forms of deformation than that seen as a result of contemporary infant positioning. Despite this evidence, there is no anthropological evidence as to the possible cognitive effects that such deformation may have, although some evidence is reviewed that suggests a possible physiological mechanism for the same. Because we can only view these cultures through the relics of time, any conclusions one might draw from the anthropological and historical record regarding the cognitive effects of head deformation can only be inferred through generalized observations and are tenuous. Nevertheless, there does not seem to be any evidence of negative effect on the societies that have practiced even very severe forms of intentional cranial deformation (e.g., the Olmec and Maya). On the other hand, the physical anthropology and the contemporary developmental literature suggest possible mechanisms for such an effect.

Review: After Eden: The Evolution of Human Domination by Kirkpatrick Sale

Review: After Eden: The Evolution of Human Domination By Kirkpatrick Sale Reviewed by Bram Buscher Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands Kirkpatrick Sale. After Eden. The Evolution of Human Domination. Durham: Duke University Press. 186 pp. ISBN: 0-8223-3938-2. (paperback; acid free paper). US$19.95. In the last decade, several books have come out trying to develop an overview of recent, archaeological, paleontological and historical anthropological evidence on human evolution. One of my favourites so far is John Reader's magnificent Africa, A Biography of the Continent. Although less broad in scope, Kirkpatrick Sale's After Eden now competes for first place. Like Reader, Sale provides a bird's eye view of recent global archaeological and paleontological findings and guides the reader in a mere 138 pages through 65.000 years of modern human evolution. Not being a palaeontologist or archaeologist but rather an interested social scientist, I am not in place to comment on Sale's use of the evidence, although the breadth of material he presents seems extensive. However, what sets After Eden apart from other similar works and what excites me as a social scientist, is Sale's social and critical emancipatory point of departure and the explicit lessons he tries to draw from the ancient past for the present. The central argument of the book revolves around its subtitle: The Evolution of Human Domination. According to Sale, the extraordinary dominance by one single bipedal species [...] has brought us to the present imperilment of the earth, including the extinction of species, the destruction of ecosystems, the alteration of climate, the pollution of waters and soils, the exhaustion of fisheries, the elimination of forests, the spread of deserts, and the disruption of the atmosphere (p.3). The consequence of this dominance of Homo Sapiens and its associated reckless policies and practices towards the earth is unavoidable ecocide (p.3). Our main predicament, so argues the book, is that human dominance is little recognised as a problem because the psychological processes leading up to it have been in the making for many millennia, so becoming accepted wisdom and even religion. In three main chapters, the book outlines how Homo Sapiens started innovating in hunting techniques (chapter one: 70.000 - 50.000 years ago), developed cultural and religious symbols to aid them in their survival (chapter two: 55.000 - 20.000 years ago) and intensified their land use through agriculture (chapter three: 20.000 - 5.000 years ago). Sale

Tiny travel companions

Since the first modern humans left their birthplace in Eastern Africa and slowly spread to populate every inhabitable place on the planet, Homo sapiens has been a migratory animal. Over thousands of years, these travellers unknowingly carried excess baggage on their journeys: countless microbes in and on their bodies, which evolved along with their host. By applying the tools of modern genomics to reconstruct the phylogenetic trees of these viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa, scientists hope to provide new insights into how our ancestors ventured throughout the world. Answering the questions of when and how humans started moving out of Africa or when the first settlers populated the Americas has so far relied on genetic markers from mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) or the Y chromosome. As mitochondria are inherited from the mother, analysis of mtDNA identifies ancestors through the maternal line, whereas Y‐DNA can trace origins using the paternal line. These studies, together with archaeological, anthropological and linguistic evidence, have generated a now widely accepted “standard model for evolution of modern humans” (Cavalli‐Sforza & Feldman, 2003). According to this model, our species moved from its original homeland in Africa to the Near East approximately 60,000–70,000 years ago, later spreading to southern Asia and Australasia, then to Europe and Central Asia, and finally entered the Americas through the Bering Strait about 14,000–20,000 years ago (Fig 1). Figure 1. Map of early human migration patterns. Credit: National Geographic Maps, Washington, DC, USA. mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA. In addition to these human markers, scientists have begun to study the evolution of viruses along with their human hosts to refine the migration patterns of H. sapiens . “The geographical distribution of viruses can reveal patterns of ancient human migrations, especially in the cases in which they are transmitted vertically and move in narrow, ethnically restricted streams of …

Man the MisInterpretant: Will He Discover the Universal Secret of Sexuality Encoded Within Him?

Biosemiotics (all levels of biological sign processes) explores the biologic and evolutionary emergence of meaning, intentionality and the psychic world. Grounded in the theory of C. S. Peirce and T. A. Sebeok, this paper expands on what Jesper Hoffmeyer terms evolutionary intentionality or the power present in code-duality (the organism itself and DNA). It is shown that dominant human activities (sexuality, religion, science, sports warfare, and so on) are cultural biosemioses (biological message flows) explaining fundamental reality, viz., the copying of genes and coding of proteins for two competing evolutionary adaptations for species survival: classical vertical gene transfer and quantum horizontal gene transfer. The problem of interpretation arises because the intentional embodied mind of Man does not understand the role of signs in the universal evolution of life due to the deceptions or secrets of biopower. Thus, the rise and expansion of biopower (itself a biosemiosis of the universal secret of sexuality or evolutionary survival) is traced from Ancient Egypt to the modern era allied to three themes: royal incest, the Christian phenomenon of sinful sex, and the production of modern sexuality as examined by Foucault. The anthropological evidence frames a cultural theory of human behavior based on biosemiotics, evolutionary intentionality and viral genetics.

The Intra-Household Economics of Polygyny: Fertility and Child Mortality in Rural Mali

Building on anthropological evidence, we develop a model of intra-household decision making on fertility and child survival within the framework of the collective household model. We carry out a test of the implications of this framework with data from Demographic and Health Surveys in rural Mali, where polygyny rates among married women are close to 50 per cent. The econometric tests reject the implications of efficient intra-household allocations for junior wives in bigynous households and fail to reject for senior wives in bigynous households as well as for wives in monogamous households. These findings are consistent with existing narrative evidence according to which co-wife rivalry is responsible for resource-consuming struggle and junior wives are the adults with the weakest bargaining position in the household.

Anthropologists, Lawyers and Native Title Cases in Australia

An important issue arising in native title cases heard by the Federal Court of Australia is the role played by expert evidence, in particular, expert anthropological evidence. We argue that, because the claimants' evidence tends to deal with concepts and experiences unfamiliar to lawyers and judges involved in a case, anthropologists, drawing on their specialised skills and experience, can contribute to both the mediation and litigation of the case in a number of ways. We also call for improvements to the way anthropological evidence is put before the Court, and argue that a number of initiatives now being implemented do assist in making best use of expert anthropological evidence. One such initiative is the compulsory conference of experts, which has already been used in five matters around Australia. This conference, from which lawyers are usually excluded, is convened by a Court Registrar. It can assist in identifying and clarifying areas of dispute amongst experts, in focusing the parties on key aspects of the case at an early stage, and in improving the strengths of, and general manner of running, each party's case.

Cruelty's rewards: The gratifications of perpetrators and spectators

Cruelty is the deliberate infliction of physical or psychological pain on other living creatures, sometimes indifferently, but often with delight. Though cruelty is an overwhelming presence in the world, there is no neurobiological or psychological explanation for its ubiquity and reward value. This target article attempts to provide such explanations by describing three stages in the development of cruelty. Stage 1 is the development of the predatory adaptation from the Palaeozoic to the ethology of predation in canids, felids, and primates. Stage 2, through palaeontological and anthropological evidence, traces the emergence of the hunting adaptation in the Pliocene, its development in early hominids, and its emotional loading in surviving forager societies. This adaptation provides an explanation for the powerful emotions - high arousal and strong affect - evoked by the pain-blood-death complex. Stage 3 is the emergence of cruelty about 1.5 million years ago as a hominid behavioural repertoire that promoted fitness through the maintenance of personal and social power. The resulting cultural elaborations of cruelty in war, in sacrificial rites, and as entertainment are examined to show the historical and cross-cultural stability of the uses of cruelty for punishment, amusement, and social control. Effective violence prevention must begin with perpetrators, not victims. If the upstream approaches to violence prevention advocated by the public-health model are to be effective, psychologists must be able to provide violence prevention workers with a fine-grained understanding of perpetrator gratifications. This is a distasteful task that will compel researchers to interact with torturers and abusers, and to acknowledge that their gratifications are rooted in a common human past. It is nonetheless an essential step in developing effective strategies for the primary prevention of violence.

The burial of Bad Dürrenberg, Central Germany: osteopathology and osteoarchaeology of a Late Mesolithic shaman's grave

AbstractThe isolated burial of Bad Dürrenberg is one of the richest Mesolithic graves in Europe. Although it was excavated in the 1930s, new spectacular anthropological and archaeological evidence has emerged during a recent re‐study. Firstly, we present here the results of an anthropological re‐evaluation of certain features of the skull base and the foramen magnum. Our work has clearly established that the observable features are caused by an anatomical variation that also includes an atlar anomaly. This developmental variation possibly caused various neuropathological symptoms. The Bad Dürrenberg burial consequently represents a unique case of the possible interpretation of abnormal behaviours in a shamanistic fashion in a prehistoric context. Secondly, we have identified the LSAMAT phenomenon (Lingual Surface Attrition of the Maxillary Anterior Teeth) in the adult individual of the burial. The activities leading to this condition are unknown so far. Thirdly, a split roe deer metatarsus among the burial goods was identified as being involved in the preparation or application of red pigment. The lack of polish and other use wear make it likely that it was produced and used as part of the burial ritual. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Combining Genetics and Population History in the Study of Ethnic Diversity in the People's Republic of China

Genomic data have increasingly been used to complement linguistic, archeological, and anthropological evidence in reconstructing the origins and migratory patterns of modern humans. East Asia is a particular hotspot of human migration, especially mainland China, where a large number of human fossils have been unearthed and more than 20% of the world's population now resides. There are 56 officially recognized ethnic populations (minzu) in China. In the present study we investigated the ancestry and genetic diversity of nine populations: the majority Han of Liaoning Province; the Miao, Yao, Kucong, and Tibetan communities of Yunnan Province in southwest China; and four Muslim populations, the Hui, Bonan, Dongxiang, and Sala from central and northern China. We used both biparental and uniparental markers to determine patterns of diversity at autosomal, mitochondrial, and Y-chromosome loci. The study populations displayed several paternal origins but restricted maternal ancestries. From the Y-chromosome data in particular, major demographic changes, such as the Neolithic population expansion and more recent historical events including migration along the Silk Road, could be inferred. Specific aspects of the internal structure and organization of the study populations, including endogamy and consanguinity, were uncovered using autosomal markers. However, we encountered interpretive problems in terms of the definition of the present-day ethnic study populations in China, which appear to reflect past and present political as well as genetic influences.

Kinship analysis of the Jomon skeletons unearthed from a double burial at the Usu-Moshiri site, Hokkaido, Japan

Kinship analysis was performed on a Jomon double burial from the Usu-Moshiri site in Hokkaido, Japan, using odontometric data in conjunction with mitochondrial DNA data. Q-mode correlations with respect to tooth crown measurements indicated a low similarity between the two adult female skeletons found from this burial. Moreover, mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed that these individuals were not maternal relatives. Consequently, judging from both morphological and genetic evidence, these skeletons are more likely to have been unrelated rather than consanguineous. This is the first report that provides anthropological evidence for a lack of kinship of skeletons discovered from a Jomon double burial.

HYBRIDITY THEORY AND KINSHIP THINKING

A parallel is posited between the ways hybridity and kinship are thought about in Western contexts, challenging the idea that kinship and biology tend to lead to narrow, roots-oriented, essentialized definitions of identity. Rather than being the opposite of rhizomic, diasporic hybridity, kinship and biology partake of the tension between roots and routes that is characteristic of all hybridity. Anthropological evidence on the character of Western kinship thinking is examined to elucidate some features of its flexibility. Theories of hybridity are seen as being themselves a type of kinship thinking.

Zooarchaeology and Historical Archaeology: Progress and Prospects

This review assesses the development and current status of zooarchaeological research in historical archaeology. Analytical issues in recovery, identification, quantification and interpretation are discussed with particular reference to assemblages from historical sites. The results section summarizes the substantive contributions zooarchaeological studies of historical assemblages have made to our understanding of past diet, food production systems, social and cultural variation, and archaeological interpretations. The last four decades of research has provided a strong basis for future analyses that draw together diverse strands of zooarchaeological, historical, scientific, and anthropological evidence.

Of grizzlies and landslides: the use of archaeological and anthropological evidence in Canadian aboriginal rights cases

This paper discusses some of the most contentious problems raised by the use of archaeological and anthropological evidence in aboriginal rights litigation in Canada. The first part of the paper deals with the general impact of archaeological and anthropological theories on law. The more specific problems related to the use of archaeological and anthropological evidence in aboriginal rights litigation are the subject of the second part. The final section deals with the reverse problem, that is, the question of the law's impact on the disciplines of archaeology and anthropology.

Of grizzlies and landslides: the use of archaeological and anthropological evidence in Canadian aboriginal rights cases

This paper discusses some of the most contentious problems raised by the use of archaeological and anthropological evidence in aboriginal rights litigation in Canada. The first part of the paper deals with the general impact of archaeological and anthropological theories on law. The more specific problems related to the use of archaeological and anthropological evidence in aboriginal rights litigation are the subject of the second part. The final section deals with the reverse problem, that is, the question of the law's impact on the disciplines of archaeology and anthropology.