Antecedent Soil Water Research Articles

Analysis of the relationship of landslide occurrence with rainfall: a case study of Wudu County, China

Landslides are a significant hazard in many parts of the world and represent an important geohazard in China. Rainfall is the primary triggering agent for landslides and often used for prediction slope failures. However, the relationship between rainfall and landslide occurrences is very complex. Great efforts have been made on the study of regional rainfall-induced landslide forecasting models in recent years; still, there is no commonly accepted method for rainfall-induced landslide prediction. In this paper, the quantitative antecedent soil water status (ASWS) model is applied to investigate the influence of daily and antecedent rainfall on the triggering of landslides and debris flows. The study area is Wudu County in Gansu Province, an area which exhibits frequent landslide occurrences. The results demonstrate a significant influence of high intensity rainfall events on landslide triggering. Still, antecedent rainfall conditions are very important and once a threshold of approximately 20 mm is exceeded, landslides and debris flows can occur even without additional rainfall. The study presented could also facilitate the implementation of a regional forecasting scheme once additional validation has been carried out.

Combined impacts of freeze–thaw processes on paddy land and dry land in Northeast China

The quantity of spring snowmelt infiltration and runoff, which affects the hydrology of the freeze zone, depends on the antecedent soil water content (SWC) conditions at the time of the soil's freezing. An understanding of the characteristics of frozen soil is essential for spring sowing in the agricultural freeze zones. The main goal of this study was to evaluate the differences in the freeze–thaw process and the freeze–thaw-induced water redistribution between the paddy and dry lands in a freeze zone. For this purpose, a field study was conducted in the winter of 2011–2012 for two types of farmlands in Northeast China. To illustrate the soil's frost dynamics over time, the measured SWCs at different depths (15, 30, 60, and 90cm) were transformed into different expressions including the SWC dynamic, the frozen soil's profile, and the freezing and thawing front trace. The freezing characteristics in the paddy land, in contrast to that in the dry land, had a higher freezing point temperature, a larger amount of water movement to the upper layer, and a 2.76mm larger accumulation of water in the upper layer. However, the increase of SWC (which is equivalent to thawing) was evidently faster than the decrease of SWC (which is equivalent to freezing). The water in the frozen soil's profile was most likely redistributed towards the freezing front before soil temperature (ST) falls below the freezing point. The findings may partially explain the soil's freeze–thaw characteristics for the different stages as well as the combined impact of these characteristics with farmland use types on soil hydrology; the findings may also provide a foundation for forecasting the hydrologic response of the freeze–thaw process and provide guidance for management strategies dealing with seasonally frozen agricultural soils.

Assessment of Soil Water Content in Field with Antecedent Precipitation Index and Groundwater Depth in the Yangtze River Estuary

To better understand soil moisture dynamics in the Yangtze River Estuary (YRE) and predict its variation in a simple way, a field monitoring experiment was carried out along the north branch of the Yangtze River, where seawater intrusion was strong and salt-water variation is one of the limiting factors of local agriculture. In present paper, relation between antecedent precipitation index (API) and soil water content is studied, and effects of groundwater depth on soil water content was analyzed. A relatively accurate prediction result of soil water content was reached using a neural network model. The impact analysis result showed that the variation of the API was consistent with soil water content and it displayed significant correlations with soil water content in both 20 and 50 cm soil layer, and higher correlation was observed in the layer of 20 cm. Groundwater impact analysis suggested that soil moisture was affected by the depth of groundwater, and was affected more greatly by groundwater at depth of 50 cm than that at 20 cm layer. By introducing API, groundwater depth and temperature together, a BP artificial network model was established to predict soil water content and an acceptable agreement was achieved. The model can be used for supplementing monitoring data of soil water content and predicting soil water content in shallow groundwater areas, and can provide favorable support for the research of water and salt transport in estuary area.

Temporal dynamics of fine roots under long‐term exposure to elevated CO2 in the Mojave Desert

Deserts are considered 'below-ground dominated', yet little is known about the impact of rising CO(2) in combination with natural weather cycles on long-term dynamics of root biomass. This study quantifies the temporal dynamics of fine-root production, loss and standing crop in an intact desert ecosystem exposed to 10 yr of elevated CO(2). We used monthly minirhizotron observations from 4 yr (2003-2007) for two dominant shrub species and along community transects at the Nevada Desert free-air CO(2) enrichment Facility. Data were synthesized within a Bayesian framework that included effects of CO(2) concentration, cover type, phenological period, antecedent soil water and biological inertia (i.e. the influence of prior root production and loss). Elevated CO(2) treatment interacted with antecedent soil moisture and had significantly greater effects on fine-root dynamics during certain phenological periods. With respect to biological inertia, plants under elevated CO(2) tended to initiate fine-root growth sooner and sustain growth longer, with the net effect of increasing the magnitude of production and mortality cycles. Elevated CO(2) interacts with past environmental (e.g. antecedent soil water) and biological (e.g. biological inertia) factors to affect fine-root dynamics, and such interactions are expected to be important for predicting future soil carbon pools.

Predicting Water Table Response to Rainfall Events, Central Florida

A rise in water table in response to a rainfall event is a complex function of permeability, specific yield, antecedent soil-water conditions, water table level, evapotranspiration, vegetation, lateral groundwater flow, and rainfall volume and intensity. Predictions of water table response, however, commonly assume a linear relationship between response and rainfall based on cumulative analysis of water level and rainfall logs. By identifying individual rainfall events and responses, we examine how the response/rainfall ratio varies as a function of antecedent water table level (stage) and rainfall event size. For wells in wetlands and uplands in central Florida, incorporating stage and event size improves forecasting of water table rise by more than 30%, based on 10 years of data. At the 11 sites studied, the water table is generally least responsive to rainfall at smallest and largest rainfall event sizes and at lower stages. At most sites the minimum amount of rainfall required to induce a rise in water table is fairly uniform when the water table is within 50 to 100 cm of land surface. Below this depth, the minimum typically gradually increases with depth. These observations can be qualitatively explained by unsaturated zone flow processes. Overall, response/rainfall ratios are higher in wetlands and lower in uplands, presumably reflecting lower specific yields and greater lateral influx in wetland sites. Pronounced depth variations in rainfall/response ratios appear to correlate with soil layer boundaries, where corroborating data are available.

Using a transient infiltrometric technique for intensively sampling field‐saturated hydraulic conductivity of a clay soil in two runoff plots

AbstractThe point measurement of soil properties allows to explain and simulate plot scale hydrological processes. An intensive sampling was carried out at the surface of an unsaturated clay soil to measure, on two adjacent plots of 4 × 11 m2 and two different dates (May 2007 and February–March 2008), dry soil bulk density, ρb, and antecedent soil water content, θi, at 88 points. Field‐saturated soil hydraulic conductivity, Kfs, was also measured at 176 points by the transient Simplified Falling Head technique to determine the soil water permeability characteristics at the beginning of a possible rainfall event yielding measurable runoff. The ρb values did not differ significantly between the two dates, but wetter soil conditions (by 31%) and lower conductivities (1.95 times) were detected on the second date as compared with the first one. Significantly higher (by a factor of 1.8) Kfs values were obtained with the 0.30‐m‐diameter ring compared with the 0.15‐m‐diameter ring. A high Kfs (> 100 mm h−1) was generally obtained for low θi values (< 0.3 m3m−3), whereas a high θi yielded an increased percentage of low Kfs data (1–100 mm h−1). The median of Kfs for each plot/sampling date combination was not lower than 600 mm h−1, and rainfall intensities rarely exceeded 100 mm h−1 at the site. The occurrence of runoff at the base of the plot needs a substantial reduction of the surface soil permeability characteristics during the event, probably promoted by a higher water content than the one of this investigation (saturation degree = 0.44–0.62) and some soil compaction due to rainfall impact. An intensive soil sampling reduces the risk of an erroneous interpretation of hydrological processes. In an unstable clay soil, changes in Kfs during the event seem to have a noticeable effect on runoff generation, and they should be considered for modeling hydrological processes. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Implications of deep drainage through saline clay for groundwater recharge and sustainable cropping in a semi-arid catchment, Australia

Abstract. The magnitude and timing of deep drainage and salt leaching through clay soils is a critical issue for dryland agriculture in semi-arid regions (<500 mm yr−1 rainfall, potential evapotranspiration >2000 mm yr−1) such as parts of Australia's Murray-Darling Basin (MDB). In this rare study, hydrogeological measurements and estimations of the historic water balance of crops grown on overlying Grey Vertosols were combined to estimate the contribution of deep drainage below crop roots to recharge and salinization of shallow groundwater. Soil sampling at two sites on the alluvial flood plain of the Lower Namoi catchment revealed significant peaks in chloride concentrations at 0.8–1.2 m depth under perennial vegetation and at 2.0–2.5 m depth under continuous cropping indicating deep drainage and salt leaching since conversion to cropping. Total salt loads of 91–229 t ha−1 NaCl equivalent were measured for perennial vegetation and cropping, with salinity to ≥ 10 m depth that was not detected by shallow soil surveys. Groundwater salinity varied spatially from 910 to 2430 mS m−1 at 21 to 37 m depth (N = 5), whereas deeper groundwater was less saline (290 mS m−1) with use restricted to livestock and rural domestic supplies in this area. The Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) software package predicted deep drainage of 3.3–9.5 mm yr−1 (0.7–2.1% rainfall) based on site records of grain yields, rainfall, salt leaching and soil properties. Predicted deep drainage was highly episodic, dependent on rainfall and antecedent soil water content, and over a 39 yr period was restricted mainly to the record wet winter of 1998. During the study period, groundwater levels were unresponsive to major rainfall events (70 and 190 mm total), and most piezometers at about 18 m depth remained dry. In this area, at this time, recharge appears to be negligible due to low rainfall and large potential evapotranspiration, transient hydrological conditions after changes in land use and a thick clay dominated vadose zone. This is in contrast to regional groundwater modelling that assumes annual recharge of 0.5% of rainfall. Importantly, it was found that leaching from episodic deep drainage could not cause discharge of saline groundwater in the area, since the water table was several meters below the incised river bed.

Results of rainfall simulation to estimate sediment-bound carbon and nitrogen loss from an Atlantic Coastal Plain (USA) ultisol

Assessment of erosion impact on soil carbon and nitrogen loss and redistribution within landscapes is needed to develop estimates of soil carbon sequestration potential, soil quality management plans, and to evaluate potential for transport of sediment bound agrochemicals. We used variable intensity rainfall simulations to quantify the effects of tillage, conventional and strip, and antecedent soil water content on sediment-bound carbon and nitrogen loss from a Tifton loamy sand located in the southeastern Atlantic Coastal Plain (USA). Carbon and nitrogen loss via erosion of silt+clay sized versus sand sized sediment particles were quantified. Antecedent water content had no effect on mean sediment loss within tillage treatments, but losses from conventional till treatments were significantly greater than from strip till. Sediment lost as silt+clay was from 58 to 78% of the total under conventional and from 30 to 39% under strip tillage. The fraction of sediment lost as silt+clay versus sand was greater under conventional tillage than under strip tillage. Within-event sediment carbon enrichment compared to the top 2cm of soil was 0.9–7.2 for conventional and 0.6–3.7 for strip tillage. The strip till silt+clay fraction had significantly higher carbon content than the strip till sand fraction and the conventional till silt+clay fraction. Carbon loss from treatments was directly proportional to sediment loss. However, the conventional till treatments lost 4.6–6 times more carbon from the silt+clay sized fraction and 1.9–4.8 times more carbon from the sand sized fraction than strip till treatments. Results suggest that the higher proportion of silt+clay fraction sediment loss from conventional till may deplete nitrogen enriched organic matter while decreased erosion from strip till may serve to increase retention of organic nitrogen. Findings also indicate that an approach that adjusts loss estimates of organic carbon and nitrogen by using wet-sieved subsamples for analysis followed by standardization against total bulk sediment loss accounts for introduced errors from both sub-sampling efficiency and disturbance.

Responses of evapotranspiration at different topographic positions and catchment water balance following a pronounced drought in a mixed species eucalypt forest, Australia

Across southern Australia, a large proportion of urban water supply is sourced from mountainous catchments forested with native eucalypts. Mixed species eucalypt forest (MSEF) is the most common forest type in this region and occurs on relatively dry, fire prone sites, yet factors controlling forest water use and stream flow in response to topography, disturbance and drought are poorly understood. This study investigated the patterns and drivers of water balance over a 4 year period in a 1.36 km2, MSEF catchment by: quantifying spatial and temporal variability in evapotranspiration (Et) and its components; evaluating the abiotic, structural and physiological factors controlling water use across the catchment; and testing the effects of antecedent soil water conditions on water fluxes after drought. This was done using a ‘bottom up’ measurement approach that included stream flow and Et (sap flow, interception troughs and evaporation dome) and a simple empirical model of Et to track catchment response to drought. Spatial variability was considerable, with 40% lower rates of Et at an up slope plot compared to mid and bottom slope plots. Tree transpiration was the dominant flux annually and was correlated to reference Et (r2 = 0.35–0.80), implying strong limitation by atmospheric demand across the catchment. Annual Et totals were relatively consistent between years (841 ± 34 mm) despite large variation in rainfall (463–1179 mm y−1). Annual stream flow represented a very small proportion of the water budget (<2% of rainfall) and showed little recovery from the drought period. The modelling showed that the change in soil water storage following drought was large (up to −330 mm) and was responsible for decreased rates of stream flow. These findings show that Et in the MSEF is sensitive to topography and demand limitation and suggests that water yield in this forest type may be particularly sensitive to future climatic change as shown by the sustained effect of drought on catchment water balance.

Sediment, soil organic carbon and runoff delivery at various spatial scales

Abstract Water erosion is a very dynamic process with direct and indirect consequences on ecosystem functioning. While the processes of sediment (SED) and soil organic carbon (SOC) detachment and transport are well recognized, it is however difficult to assess and interpret their impact on SED and SOC detachment, transport and sedimentation within a given landscape. In this study of a tropical area of the Mekong Basin, our main objective was to evaluate sediment (SED), soil organic carbon (SOC) and runoff (R) delivery from various spatial scales from 1 m² to 10 km² and to interpret these results in term of erosion processes operating within the landscape. Deliveries from nested scales of microplots (1 × 1 m²; n = 12 installed at different topographic positions and soils of a hillslope), plots (1 × 2.5 m²; n = 8), hillslope (60 × 100 m²) and catchment (30, 60, and 1000 ha) were assessed during an entire rainy season. To improve understanding of soil erosion at landscape level, delivery of mobilized water, sediment and SOC from one surface area to the following one in the nested experimental design were confronted to environmental information on rainfall characteristics (rainfall intensity, I; maximum 6-min rainfall intensity, I max ; rainfall amount, R; rainfall depth Dur; cumulative yearly rainfall prior to the event, Cum), slope gradient (S), soil thickness (T) and soil crusting (Crust), antecedent soil water content (SWC), and depth to the water table (DWT). These data were finally compared to extensive mapping of the thickness and the type of the soils in an attempt to validate these results and to evaluate the longer term consequences of erosion processes on soil distribution. The mean sediment delivery from 1 × 1 m² plots was 899 g m −2 y − 1 with standard error (SE) of 26 g m −2 y − 1 . The SED delivery decreased to 275 ± 63 g m −2 y − 1 on 1 × 2.5 m 2 plots and to 4.3 g m −2 y − 1 at the hillslope level but then increased to 16.6 g m −2 y − 1 at the basin level. The slight decrease in SED delivery flux from 899 g m −1 y − 1 on 1 m long plots to 688 ± 157 g m −1 y − 1 on 2.5 m 2 long plots and to 468 g m −1 y − 1 on the 100 m long hillslope revealed that SED detachment and transport in slopes is mainly controlled by splash. The ratio of plot to microplot deliveries for R increased significantly as Crust increased (r = 0.91) but decreased with increasing Cov (r = − 0.88) while the ratio for SOC correlated the most with S (r = 0.97) and Cov (r = − 0.58). The R delivery ratio from hillslope to plot and from river to hillslope increased as soils get wetter and the water table rose while higher ratios for SED and SOC occurred at longer event duration and larger rainfall depth amount and at larger yearly antecedent rainfall in the case of the within catchment delivery. The large accumulations of SED and SOC at the lower parts of hillslopes confirms the observed erosion dynamics longer-term, (i.e., removal and transport of SED and SOC mainly by splash because of high infiltration occurring in slopes) thus suggesting a potential long-term sequestration of the SOC deposited in the lower parts of hillslopes while deposition in the river network appeared ephemeral.

Runoff and soil and nutrient losses in semiarid uncultivated fields

Although water erosion is the principle agent responsible for soil degradation, field data on the impacts of erosion, due to high operational costs and measurement difficulties, are scarce, especially in semiarid regions. In this context, the aim of this study was to evaluate runoff and soil and nutrient losses in uncultivated areas in the semiarid region of the state of Ceará in Brazil. The experiment was conducted in a 20 m² erosion plot that was uncultivated and populated with herbaceous plants. Data were collected during the rainy season from January to May 2009. Monthly water losses from overland flow ranged from 3.4 to 168.9 mm, representing 1.8 to 42.3% of the total monthly rainfall for January and April, respectively. Soil loss from erosion totaled 2,166.6 kg ha-1. In February, soil losses were 834.3 kg ha-1, corresponding to 38.5% of the total value. The rainfall erosivity index (EI30) was 5,716.4 MJ mm ha-1 h-1. The observed high variability of soil losses in individual events was influenced mainly by the antecedent soil water content. Although this study used only one year of observations, the findings are important for land use planning, especially in the semiarid region of Brazil, where datasets are scarce.

Modelling soil water and salt dynamics under pulsed and continuous surface drip irrigation of almond and implications of system design

The HYDRUS-2D model was experimentally verified for water and salinity distribution during the profile establishment stage (33 days) of almond under pulsed and continuous drip irrigation. The model simulated values of water content obtained at different lateral distances (0, 20, 40, 60, 100 cm) from a dripper at 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 140 and 160 cm soil depths at different times (5, 12, 19, 26 and 33 days of profile establishment) were compared with neutron probe measured values under both irrigation scenarios. The model closely predicted water content distribution at all distances, times and soil depths as RMSE values ranged between 0.017 and 0.049. The measured mean soil water salinity (ECsw) at 25 cm from the dripper at 30, 60, 90 and 150 cm soil depth also matched well with the predicted values. A correlation of 0.97 in pulsed and 0.98 in continuous drip systems with measured values indicated the model closely predicted total salts in the root zone. Thus, HYDRUS-2D successfully simulated the change in soil water content and soil water salinity in both the wetting pattern and in the flow domain. The initial mean ECsw below the dripper in pulsed (5.25 dSm−1) and continuous (6.07 dSm−1) irrigations decreased to 1.31 and 1.36 dSm−1, respectively, showing a respective 75.1 and 77.6% decrease in the initial salinity. The power function [y = ax−b] best described the mathematical relationship between salt removal from the soil profile as a function of irrigation time under both irrigation scenarios. Contrary to other studies, higher leaching fraction (6.4–43.1%) was recorded in pulsed than continuous (1.1–35.1%) irrigation with the same amount of applied water which was brought about by the variation in initial soil water content and time of irrigation application. It was pertinent to note that a small (0.012) increase in mean antecedent water content (θi) brought about 8.25–9.06% increase in the leaching fraction during the profile establishment irrespective of the emitter geometry, discharge rate, and irrigation scenario. Under similar θi, water applied at a higher discharge rate (3.876 Lh−1) has resulted in slightly higher leaching fraction than at a low discharge rate (1.91 Lh−1) under pulsing only owing to the variation in time of irrigation application. The influence of pulsing on soil water content, salinity distribution, and drainage flux vanished completely when irrigation was applied daily on the basis of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) with a suitable leaching fraction. Therefore, antecedent soil water content and scheduling or duration of water application play a significant role in the design of drip irrigation systems for light textured soils. These factors are the major driving force to move water and solutes within the soil profile and may influence the off-site impacts such as drainage flux and pollution of the groundwater.

Effects of rainfall intensity and antecedent soil water content on soil infiltrability under rainfall conditions using the run off-on-out method

Summary Soil infiltrability, or infiltration capacity, is the rate at which water penetrates into the soil at a rate directly controlled by soil factors alone. The infiltrability is of great importance in understanding and managing hydrological processes, crop water supply, irrigation, and soil erosion. The infiltration dynamics measured with the run off-on-out (ROOO) method follows the changes in infiltrability during the infiltration process under rainfall conditions. In this study, the ROOO method was used to quantitatively measure the soil infiltrability under three rainfall intensities (20, 40 and 60 mm/h) and three antecedent soil moisture contents (2.6%, 10.4% and 19.5%, equivalent to 7.5% (air-dry), 30% and 60% of field capacity, respectively, of a clay loam soil. The soil infiltrability determined by the ROOO method decreased with increase in initial soil water content, due to the lower hydraulic gradient at the wetting front. Surface seal formation due to raindrop impact had a significant influence on soil infiltrability and was related to the soil water content. The faster wetting rate of drier soil under higher rainfall intensities, or when using the double-ring infiltrometer for comparison, caused severe aggregate breakdown to promote surface sealing, and significant decrease in soil infiltrability. Cumulative infiltration increased rapidly at the beginning of the infiltration process and then increased approximately linearly with time as the infiltration rate approached to constant. The rate of increase in cumulative infiltration was less under higher initial soil water contents, especially in the initial rainfall stage. Moreover, lower rainfall intensity resulted in higher infiltration rates and greater cumulative infiltration. The soil infiltrability processes measured with the ROOO method were fitted better by Kostiakov, Horton and Philip infiltration models than those measured by the double-ring infiltrometer method. The ROOO method provided reliable data for the entire infiltration process without the limitations of conventional rainfall simulation during the initial phase or of the drawbacks of the double-ring infiltrometer method. The results will have introductory meanings to further studies along this line.

Influence of C4 vegetation on 13CO2 discrimination and isoforcing in the upper Midwest, United States

Agricultural crops with a C4 photosynthetic pathway rapidly expanded across North America as early as 800 A.D. Their distribution continues to expand globally as demands for food and biofuel production increase. These systems are highly productive, having a significant impact on carbon and water exchange between the land and atmosphere. Here, we investigate the relative impact of agricultural C4 vegetation on the 13CO2 photosynthetic discrimination and atmospheric isotopic forcing in the upper Midwest, United States. We address three questions: (1) What is the relative importance of C3 and C4 species to the CO2 budget? (2) How do these different photosynthetic pathways influence the photosynthetic discrimination within this heterogeneous landscape? (3) To what extent does land use change (i.e., a change in C4 crops) impact atmospheric isotopic forcing and the isotopic signature of the atmosphere? These questions are addressed using measurements obtained from the University of Minnesota tall tower (244 m) trace gas observatory (TGO) over the growing seasons of 2007 and 2008 and are supported with scaled‐up values of discrimination and isotopic forcing based on ecosystem‐scale eddy flux observations and high‐resolution land use data. Our land use analyses indicate that local and regional C4 production was higher by 10% in 2007 due to increased demand for biofuel. The 2007 growing season was also characterized by moderate drought as a consequence of low antecedent soil water content. Isotopic flux ratio measurements from TGO provide evidence that the increase in C4 land use and drier soil conditions of 2007 had a significant impact on the growing season 13CO2 photosynthetic discrimination, which ranged from 11.5 to 14.8 in 2007 and 12.4‰ to 17.4‰ in 2008. Isotopic partitioning indicated that C4 species accounted for about 20 to 40% of the growing season gross photosynthetic CO2 exchange. The isoforcing analysis revealed that C3 discrimination dominated the atmospheric δa13 budget, especially during spring and fall. Estimates of 13CO2 photosynthetic discrimination for this region support recently published isotope modeling studies that explicitly accounted for increases in C4 cropland, which has significant implications for estimating the terrestrial carbon sink strength based on inverse modeling techniques.

Antecedent soil moisture affecting surface cracking of a Vertisol in field conditions

Cracking of shrink–swell soils influences landscape hydrology. Watershed models that address soil cracking phenomena generally use a relationship between shrinkage and current soil water content to estimate the extent of cracking. Although antecedent soil moisture prior to soil shrinkage is found to affect the shrinking of expansive soils in laboratory measurements, field observations are limited. In a previous study, a series of in situ surface crack measurements over 10 years indicated the effect of soil moisture just prior to the start of cracking (antecedent soil moisture) on cracking extent, but this relationship was not specifically analyzed. The objectives of this study were (i) to estimate the antecedent soil water content prior to cracking, (ii) to analyze the effect of antecedent moisture on crack area density in microhighs and microlows, and (iii) to assess the temporal distribution of antecedent soil moisture in relation to an estimated water availability index. Soil cracking was measured on a 10-m × 10-m plot of Laewest clay (fine, smectitic, hyperthermic Typic Hapludert) covered with native tallgrass vegetation on 42 dates during 1989–1998. Gravimetric soil water content was measured on 50 dates; 18 dates corresponded to crack measurements. Gilgai microtopograhy was mapped, and surface crack area density was calculated. For days when soil water content was not measured, it was estimated from precipitation and evapotranspiration. Antecedent soil water content prior to cracking was estimated for depth at 10 cm using daily estimates of soil water content and field notes on cracking. Results indicated that the temporal variation in surface crack area density of the study area during 10 years was related to dynamics of current and antecedent soil water content on microhighs and microlows ( R 2 = 0.68 and 0.59, respectively). Prediction accuracies improved with classifying drying–wetting conditions during cracking. Dynamic temporal changes in the surface crack area density exhibited dependence on a long-term (multi-year) cycle of antecedent soil water content superimposed by short-term (within a year) cycles of current soil water content.

Physical and hydraulic characterization of a clay soil at the plot scale

The soil physical and hydraulic properties have to be determined for interpreting and simulating many hydrological processes. An investigation was carried out to determine the physical and hydraulic characteristics of a clay soil at the plot scale. An intensive sampling of the surface soil layer of two plots of 4 × 11 m 2 was carried out by measuring, for each plot, dry soil bulk density, ρ b , and antecedent soil water content , θ i , at 88 sampling points and field-saturated soil hydraulic conductivity , K fs , at 176 sampling points. A wide range of K fs values (0.7–5107 mm h −1 ) were measured by the Simplified Falling Head (SFH) technique. For each variable, the two plots yielded very similar results in terms of summary statistics (mean values of ρ b , θ i and K fs equal to 1.02–1.03 Mg m −3 , 0.27–0.28 m 3 m −3 and 1181–1244 mm h −1 , respectively; associated coefficients of variation equal to 9.8–10%, 19.2–21.1%, and 75.9–84.4%) and empirical frequency distributions. For both plots, the hypothesis that data were normally distributed was not rejected for the untransformed ρ b and θ i , and only for K fs 2 / 3 among many mathematical transformations of this variable. However, differences in the spatial distribution of a given variable were detected between the two plots. It was concluded that the SFH technique is suitable for measuring a wide range of K fs values with a relatively low experimental effort, and that the K fs 2 / 3 transformation was the best transformation for characterizing the spatial variability of K fs . In addition, the sampling strategy should vary with the objective of the investigation. For the considered clay soil, a small sample size (i.e., ⩽19) is enough to determine representative means for both ρ b and θ i . Obtaining representative mean results for K fs needs a much larger sample size (i.e., ⩾84). A large sample size (i.e., 56–93, mainly depending on the variable) is also necessary to deduce representative standard deviations and to study the spatial structure of the variables included in this investigation. Finally, mean and standard deviation of ρ b , θ i and K fs obtained by an intensive sampling of a single plot may be used to characterize another plot close to the sampled one.

An index of soil drought intensity and degree: An application on corn and a comparison with CWSI

A variety of indices have been used to measure soil and crop drought for irrigation scheduling. However, simple indices with physiological mechanisms from soil water content are still expected. Based on the water flow and supply in a soil–plant continuum, we examined the concepts of soil drought intensity and drought degree and found an empirical correlation between soil water storage and depletion in a given layer. Accordingly, an index of soil drought intensity (I) and degree (D) was established using the soil water data obtained from a field experiment conducted in Xianning, Hubei, China. Corn plants (Zea mays L., Yedan 13) were grown at field plots under a movable rain shelter. From the V6 stage to R1 stage, the corn plants were grown under seven soil water deficit levels, by no irrigation applied for 0–36 days in 2005 and 0–32 days in 2006. At the end of the irrigation withholding period, it was found that soil water below 70 cm still remained at high level, but the soil water was not easily transported to the root zone in the upper layer. The daily values of I in different soil layers reflected the soil water depletion rates in the drying course. The values of D in different soil layers, which were calculated from I, increased with the progressive soil drying course. The D index in different soil layers not only revealed the drought severity of the layer, but it was also inversely correlated with corn yields when D was less than the threshold values. When D went beyond the thresholds, for example 0.68 in 2005 (soil dried 25 days) and 0.70 in 2006 (soil dried 17 days) in the 0–10 cm soil layer, the corn yield was reduced significantly. Based on soil water changes, index D is the comprehensive result of antecedent soil water condition, crop growth and root development, soil properties, and potential atmospheric evaporation. It is also comparable to the development of drought hazard on a crop. The results suggest that soil drought degree D, together with I, can be an index for monitoring and evaluating soil–crop drought, as well as complementing the crop water stress index (CWSI) in irrigation scheduling.

The sensitivity of temperate steppe CO 2 exchange to the quantity and timing of natural interannual rainfall

Precipitation quantity and timing have been shown to fundamentally influence grassland ecosystem CO 2 exchange by both model simulation and field observation. Carbon dioxide exchange and patterns of variation (magnitude and timing) in precipitation were observed to determine their relationship in typical steppe in Inner Mongolia Plateau during four years (2003–2006) with different rainfall patterns. The response of ecosystem-level CO 2 fluxes to rainfall pulse events was also examined. The four years studied were classified into three levels of rainfall amount (100%, 2004; reduced by 70% in 2005 and by 45% in 2006 compared with 2004) and two temporal patterns of rain events (average temporal patterns in 2004 and altered precipitation timing in 2003, a year with precipitation fell during the first half of the growing season, compared with 2004). The grassland ecosystem switched from a carbon sink (2004) to carbon sources (2005 and 2006) under reduced rainfall amounts. Carbon sink reduced by 34% under variational rainfall timing conditions (2003). There was a significant positive correlation between annual rainfall and above-ground NPP across the study ( P = 0.05, r 2 = 0.9). Antecedent soil water before rainfall pulse and rainfall pulse size are important in controlling the response of CO 2 exchange to rainfall in this steppe. After rainfall pulse events, CO 2 fluxes had 4 to 5 days of system-level hysteresis and the increase degree of CO 2 exchange was different among the four years. Precipitation pulse size not only affected the duration of CO 2 fluxes, but also instant flux rate. Our results suggest that CO 2 exchange in temperate steppe will be more sensitive to altered rainfall timing and more affected by changes in rainfall quantity, with a longer dry season resulting in significant C losing from Eurasia grassland in Inner Mongolia Plateau.

Implications of precipitation patterns and antecedent soil water content for leaching of pesticides from arable land

An improved understanding of how precipitation patterns control pesticide leaching from structured soils prone to macropore flow could lead to practical mitigation strategies that would help farmers minimize losses by optimizing application timings. A sensitivity analysis of the macropore flow model MACRO was therefore carried out to examine the influence of antecedent soil water content and precipitation patterns on pesticide leaching to drainage systems and groundwater. One thousand model runs were executed (20 four-year weather data series, 50 application dates per season) for both autumn and spring applications of a hypothetical moderately sorbed and quickly degraded herbicide for one of three national scenarios for pesticide risk assessment in Sweden (Näsbygård, a loamy moraine soil in Scania, southern Sweden). Rapid and direct transport of pesticides in macropores to drainage systems and shallow groundwater was predicted to occur rather infrequently in spring (in 4 of the 20 years) and even more rarely in autumn. For autumn applications, the soil water deficit at application ( SWD tot ) and medium-term precipitation (30–90 days after application) were the two most sensitive variables controlling pesticide leaching. For spring applications, total leaching was most closely linked to rainfall the following winter, while short-term precipitation (5 days after application) and the antecedent soil water deficit were the two most important predictors for maximum pesticide concentrations in drainflow. The potential for reducing leaching by restricting applications to periods of low risk was investigated. The results showed that avoiding applications on wet soil in autumn could potentially reduce total pesticide losses by a factor of two to three. Similarly, the risk of acute toxicological effects in surface waters following pesticide applications in spring could be reduced by a factor of 2–3 by avoiding application when 5-day weather forecasts predict precipitation >10 mm.

Aggregate Stability and Erosion Response to Antecedent Water Content of a Loess Soil

Soil erosion processes are affected by the erodibility of the soil and by the erosivity of the rain. The effects of rain characteristics and invariant soil properties such as texture and organic matter content on soil erosion processes are well documented. The effect of antecedent soil water content (θa) on aggregate breakdown, seal formation, and subsequent soil erosion is much more disputable, however, as opposing effects have been reported. We conducted lab experiments with a rainfall simulator on a Belgian silt loam soil. The objectives were to determine the effect of θa on seal formation, runoff, and soil loss and to evaluate its effect on an empirical sediment transport equation. Air‐dried soil aggregates were subjected to θa of 0.04 (air‐dry aggregates), 0.12, and 0.19 m3 m−3 No runoff occurred on the soils with the highest θa, highest total runoff values were observed for intermediate θa, while intermediate amounts of total runoff were observed for the air‐dry aggregates. Soil loss, however, showed a different trend: highest values were found for the lowest θa, intermediate values for the intermediate θa, and no soil loss for the highest θa We further observed that θa had no influence on the final runoff rates and on the final infiltration rate through the soil surface. In using a water discharge and stream power equation to predict sediment transport, the intercept and exponent of the regression equations were found to be lower for θa of 0.19 than 0.12 m3 m−3, indicating decreasing erodibility with increasing θa We therefore suggest including θa as an additional variable to assess soil erodibility in deterministic event‐based water erosion models.