Annual Export Research Articles

Permafrost conditions in peatlands regulate magnitude, timing, and chemical composition of catchment dissolved organic carbon export.

Permafrost thaw in peatlands has the potential to alter catchment export of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and thus influence downstream aquatic C cycling. Subarctic peatlands are often mosaics of different peatland types, where permafrost conditions regulate the hydrological setting of each type. We show that hydrological setting is key to observed differences in magnitude, timing, and chemical composition of DOC export between permafrost and nonpermafrost peatland types, and that these differences influence the export of DOC of larger catchments even when peatlands are minor catchment components. In many aspects, DOC export from a studied peatland permafrost plateau was similar to that of a forested upland catchment. Similarities included low annual export (2-3 g C m(-2) ) dominated by the snow melt period (~70%), and how substantial DOC export following storms required wet antecedent conditions. Conversely, nonpermafrost fens had higher DOC export (7 g C m(-2) ), resulting from sustained hydrological connectivity during summer. Chemical composition of catchment DOC export arose from the mixing of highly aromatic DOC from organic soils from permafrost plateau soil water and upland forest surface horizons with nonaromatic DOC from mineral soil groundwater, but was further modulated by fens. Increasing aromaticity from fen inflow to outlet was substantial and depended on both water residence time and water temperature. The role of fens as catchment biogeochemical hotspots was further emphasized by their capacity for sulfate retention. As a result of fen characteristics, a 4% fen cover in a mixed catchment was responsible for 34% higher DOC export, 50% higher DOC concentrations and ~10% higher DOC aromaticity at the catchment outlet during summer compared to a nonpeatland upland catchment. Expansion of fens due to thaw thus has potential to influence landscape C cycling by increasing fen capacity to act as biogeochemical hotspots, amplifying aquatic C cycling, and increasing catchment DOC export.

Salt marshes in the silica budget of the North Sea

Local scale studies reported the silica recycling of salt marshes to substantially attenuate the dissolved silica (DSi) limitation in coastal waters during summer. To assess the importance of salt marshes in the silica budget of the North Sea, we extrapolate reported DSi exports by local scale studies to salt marsh areas adjacent to the North Sea. The resulting annual average contribution of salt marshes to the DSi budget of the North Sea is estimated to 0.8% of the annual river DSi export. During summer, this contribution may reach 2.4%. Thus, salt marshes likely impact the annual dissolved silica budget of the North Sea only weakly. However, for regions with favorable geographic conditions of low river DSi exports and large marsh areas, salt marsh DSi exports may substantially contribute to coastal DSi budgets. In the English Channel, salt marsh DSi exports are estimated to 16% of river DSi export in summer. However, the low data density calls for additional field research to improve extrapolations and the evaluation of the contribution of salt marsh DSi export to the coastal DSi budgets.

Assessing non-detrimental trade for a CITES Appendix II-listed plant species: the status of wild and cultivated Galanthus woronowii in Georgia

AbstractA process for the review of significant trade in species listed in CITES Appendix II was established to address problems with the application of CITES Article IV. Article IV states that international trade in Appendix II species requires a Scientific Authority of the state of export to determine that such trade will not be detrimental to the species’ survival in the wild. Such a review process was initiated for the plant species Galanthus woronowii Losinsk. as a result of continuing uncertainty over the sustainability of international exports of the plant from wild populations in Georgia, and the Georgian Management Authority was tasked with determining and reporting whether export levels conformed to Article IV. Here we report on the project that was established to address that task. Nationwide field surveys conducted in 2009 led to the recommendation of a conservative annual export quota of 15 million plants for the sites surveyed. Cultivated populations held significant stocks of harvestable plants but with varied cultivation histories, especially in relation to the extent and nature of supplementary planting. Future work should continue to monitor harvesting from wild populations and identify solutions for local communities wishing to cultivate the plant for international trade.

The gravity model analysis: an application on MERCOSUR trade flows

This paper explores the determinants of bilateral trade flows between Mercosur countries. To this aim, a gravity model is applied to annual bilateral exports between 75 countries in 1980–2008. The model is augmented with variables that are relevant in determining the volume and direction of international trade using two alternative estimation methods; pooled ordinary least squares and panel fixed effects. The results reveal that the influence of the agreement on trade has been positive but moderate. As a whole, Mercosur has had positive effects, and this agreement can be reinforced with the deepening of their relationships and the entry of new members.

Effects of lakes and reservoirs on annual river nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment export in agricultural and forested landscapes

AbstractRecently, effects of lakes and reservoirs on river nutrient export have been incorporated into landscape biogeochemical models. Because annual export varies with precipitation, there is a need to examine the biogeochemical role of lakes and reservoirs over time frames that incorporate interannual variability in precipitation. We examined long‐term (~20 years) time series of river export (annual mass yield, Y, and flow‐weighted mean annual concentration, C) for total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), and total suspended sediment (TSS) from 54 catchments in Wisconsin, USA. Catchments were classified as small agricultural, large agricultural, and forested by use of a cluster analysis, and these varied in lentic coverage (percentage of catchment lake or reservoir water that was connected to river network). Mean annual export and interannual variability (CV) of export (for both Y and C) were higher in agricultural catchments relative to forested catchments for TP, TN, and TSS. In both agricultural and forested settings, mean and maximum annual TN yields were lower in the presence of lakes and reservoirs, suggesting lentic denitrification or N burial. There was also evidence of long‐term lentic TP and TSS retention, especially when viewed in terms of maximum annual yield, suggesting sedimentation during high loading years. Lentic catchments had lower interannual variability in export. For TP and TSS, interannual variability in mass yield was often >50% higher than interannual variability in water yield, whereas TN variability more closely followed water (discharge) variability. Our results indicate that long‐term mass export through rivers depends on interacting terrestrial, aquatic, and meteorological factors in which the presence of lakes and reservoirs can reduce the magnitude of export, stabilize interannual variability in export, as well as introduce export time lags. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Dissolved and particulate organic carbon fluxes from an agricultural watershed during consecutive tropical storms

Low‐frequency high‐magnitude hydrologic events mobilize a disproportionate amount of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from watersheds, but few studies measure the role of extreme storms in exporting organic carbon from croplands. We use high‐resolution measurements of storm runoff to quantify DOC and particulate organic carbon (POC) fluxes from an agricultural field during consecutive tropical storms that delivered 41 cm of rainfall to the Virginia Coastal Plain. Over a 2 week period, we measured exports of 22 kg DOC ha−1 and 11.3 kg POC ha−1. Ultraviolet absorbance measurements indicate that the aromatic DOC fraction systematically increased as plant‐derived aliphatic carbon was depleted during the initial event. Croplands can have event‐scale carbon losses that equal or exceed published estimates of annual export for perennial streams draining forested and mixed land use watersheds. We quantify aromatic DOC fractions approaching 50%, indicating that agricultural stormflow can produce a significant load of relatively photoreactive carbon.

Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Carbon, and Suspended Solids Loads from Forest Clear-Cutting and Site Preparation: Long-Term Paired Catchment Studies from Eastern Finland

The long-term impacts of current forest management methods on surface water quality in Fennoscandia are largely unexplored. We studied the long-term effects of clear-cutting and site preparation on runoff and the export of total nitrogen (total N), total organic nitrogen (TON), ammonium (NH(4)-N), nitrate (NO(3)-N), total phosphorus (total P), phosphate (PO(4)-P), total organic carbon, and suspended solids (SS) in three paired-catchments in Eastern Finland. Clear-cutting and soil preparation were carried out on 34 % (C34), 11 % (C11), and 8 % (C8) of the area of the treated catchments and wide buffer zones were left along the streams. Clear-cutting and soil preparation increased annual runoff and total N, TON, NO(3)-N, PO(4)-P, and SS loads, except for SS, only in C34. Runoff increased by 16 % and the annual exports of total N, TON, NO(3)-N, and PO(4)-P by 18, 12, 270, and 12 %, respectively, during the 14-year period after clear-cutting. SS export increased by 291 % in C34, 134 % in C11, and 16 % in C8 during the 14, 6, and 11-year periods after clear-cutting. In the C11 catchment, NO(3)-N export decreased by 12 %. The results indicate that while current forest management practices can increase the export of N, P and SS from boreal catchments for many years (>10 years), the increases are only significant when the area of clear cutting exceeds 30 % of catchment area.

Seasonal exports of phosphorus from intensively fertilised nested grassland catchments

We carried out a one year (2002) study of phosphorus (P) loss from soil to water in three nested grassland catchments with known P input in chemical fertilizer and animal liquid slurry applications. Chemical fertilizer was applied to the grasslands between March and September and animal slurry was applied over the twelve months. The annual chemical P fertilizer applications for the 17 and 211 ha catchments were 16.4 and 23.7 kg P/ha respectively and the annual slurry applications were 10.7 and 14.0 kg P/ha, respectively. The annual total phosphorus (TP) export in stream-flow was 2.61, 2.48 and 1.61 kg P/ha for the 17, 211 and 1524 ha catchments, respectively, compared with a maximum permissible (by regulation) annual export of ca. 0.35 kg P/ha. The export rate (ratio of P export to P in land applications) was 9.6% and 6.6% from the 17 and 211 ha catchments, respectively. On average, 70% of stream flow and 85% of the P export occurred during the five wet months (October to February) indicating that when precipitation is much greater than evaporation, the hydrological conditions are most favourable for P export. However the soil quality and land use history may vary the results. Particulate P made up 22%, 43% and 37% of the TP export at the 17, 211 and 1524 ha catchment areas, respectively. As the chemical fertilizer was spread during the grass growth months (March to September), it has less immediate impact on stream water quality than the slurry applications. We also show that as the catchment scale increases, the P concentrations and P export decrease, confirming dilution due to increasing rural catchment size. In the longer term, the excess P from fertilizer maintains high soil P levels, an antecedent condition favourable to P loss from soil to water. This study confirms the significant negative water quality impact of excess P applications, particularly liquid animal slurry applications in wet winter months. The findings suggest that restricted P application in wet months can largely reduce the P losses from soil to water.

Indonesia-China Energy Trade: Analyzing Global and Domestic Political Economic Significance in Indonesia-China LNG Trade

Indonesia had been the largest LNG exporter for almost three decades since 1977 to 2005. During 1970s and 1980s, Indonesia’s energy industry boosted its economic growth that valued 80% of the country’s annual exports and 70% of its annual revenues. Meanwhile, Indonesia presents an exceptional case since it decreases its LNG export while it has been developing its largest LNG plant in Tangguh due to prioritizing domestic energy demand. But, since Indonesia eagerly links its economy to China, it uses LNG export as a medium to strengthen Indonesia-China strategic partnership. Tangguh LNG export to China, although it is not Indonesia’s largest LNG export contract, reflects a unique case of a developing country’s international energy trade. Because it presents evolution of Indonesia’s LNG export policy through dynamics of regional and global economic turbulences. This paper analyses the LNG export in the context of Asian economic crisis and its recovery, the peak of crude oil price in 2008 and followed by global financial crisis as the context as well as Indonesia’s domestic political dynamics.

Flood-driven transport of sediment, particulate organic matter, and nutrients from the Po River watershed to the Mediterranean Sea

The Po River (Northern Italy) discharge represents a considerable input of the land-derived material entering the Mediterranean Sea. Most of its particulate and dissolved constituents are supplied to the sea in response to short-lived climate events. Although these floods exert first-order control on the transport of organic and inorganic elements, both composition and magnitude of the river material are poorly constrained during high discharge periods. In order to fill this knowledge gap, in this study we carried out an event response sampling in the Po River in November 2011. Beginning in early November, intense rainfall occurred in the Po watershed that resulted in a flood of ∼6000m3s−1 (2.5year return period). Water samples were collected from the river before and during the flood. Dissolved nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, and silicate were measured and the particulate material was analyzed for total suspended sediment, elemental composition, δ13C, δ15N, grain-size, and 137Cs activity.Our results showed a temporal decoupling between solid and water discharge implying that predicted sediment loads simply derived from sediment rating curves could potentially give rise to large errors, especially when calculations are used to understand the sediment export in response short-lived events. The suspended organic material during high flow was dominated by soil organic matter while high δ15N indicated the influence of an additional 15N-enriched source (e.g., manure, sewage, and algal biomass) during low discharge. Because the concentrations of nitrite and ammonia were positively correlated with the content of particulate material in suspension, we inferred that nitrite and ammonia concentrations were driven by either bacteria activity (ammonification–nitrification) or ionic exchange whose rates were proportional to concentration of the suspended material. In addition, due to the dilution with nitrate-poor rainfall, the concentration of nitrate decreased with increasing water discharge. High concentrations of nitrate were instead attributable to the influx of nitrate-rich water from groundwater that is chronically contaminated and constitutes most of the baseflow during low flow. Our results indicate that the event-dominated transport in the Po drainage basin is particularly important for the organic matter supply as flood events account for at least one-third of the particulate annual export (organic carbon and nitrogen). Finally, this study has demonstrated the utility of event-response sampling for understanding the importance of event-dominated transport in rivers.

Elements for a non-detriment finding of Cedrela spp. in Bolivia—A CITES implementation case study

Cedrela odorata and C. fissilis are two tropical tree species that have been widely harvested for their timber. In response to this heavy exploitation, the species have been listed in Appendix III of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The aim of this study was to provide important elements necessary for the making of CITES Non-Detriment Findings for Cedrela spp. in Bolivia using a wide variety of sources of information on its distribution, population structure, and management at multiple spatial scales. A national large-scale database of forest inventories was created, including information about trees of certain species with diameter at breast height (dbh) ≥20. These data were used to make non-detriment findings (NDFs) following CITES guidance for timber species. Spatial prediction of Cedrela habitat revealed a consistent pattern of habitat probability across Bolivia. The genus occurs in areas formerly or currently occupied by ten of the twelve forest types described as habitat for Cedrela odorata and C. fissilis, with a density ranging from 0.4 to 159 trees>60cmdbh per 100ha. Based on these data, the annual export quota for Cedrela in Bolivia should be 3513.1m3 of timber. This country-level case study could provide a roadmap for other studies that may eventually lead to uplisting the genus. Including Cedrela in CITES Appendix II may help to ensure that its harvest to supply international markets is conducted in a sustainable manner, without damaging the target species or their ecosystem.

Sources of mercury in a contaminated stream—implications for the timescale of recovery

Mercury contamination in East Fork Poplar Creek in Tennessee arises from dissolved mercury exiting a headwater industrial complex and residual mercury in the streambed and soil throughout the watershed downstream. The headwater inputs generate chronic base flow concentrations of total mercury of about 1,000 ng/L, but most of the annual export of mercury from the system appears to originate farther downstream. Effective targeting of remedial efforts requires determining how long downstream sources might continue to contaminate the system following elimination of the headwater mercury inputs. The authors calculations suggest that (1) contaminated soils and sediments account for >80% of the annual mercury export from the entire watershed, with most export occurring during wet weather events; (2) bank erosion and resuspension of streambed particulates are the major mercury sources maintaining high annual mercury export rates; and (3) the inventory of particle-associated mercury in the streambed was not large enough to sustain the estimated export rates for more than a few years. The authors findings imply that to prevent waterborne mercury contamination in this system from continuing for decades, remedial actions will have to control the headwater mercury source that sustains day-to-day base flow mercury concentrations and the riparian stream-bank sources that generate most of the mercury export from the system.

Reducing the phosphorus effluent load from a paddy-field district through cyclic irrigation

Phosphorus (P) effluent load discharged from paddy fields has a substantial impact on water quality in downstream areas. We evaluated the effectiveness of cyclic irrigation, in which drainage water is reused for irrigation purposes, in reducing the P load from a paddy-field district neighboring Lake Biwa, Japan. We measured temporal variations in the P concentration in drainage water and estimated the P mass balance for the study district for three consecutive years (2007–2009). A simple model was developed to characterize the hydrological structure and effects of cyclic irrigation using three parameters: the ratio of the P concentration in drainage water to that in irrigation water, the degree to which drainage water is reused, and the ratio of surplus irrigation water to the total amount of irrigation water. The total annual exports of P were 2.62–3.13kgha–1. Phosphorus exports during the cyclic irrigation periods (April–June) were 0.27–0.63kgha–1 (period average rate=3.7–8.8gha–1d–1), lower than those during the lake water irrigation periods (July–August) of 0.82–1.66kgha–1 (8.9–18.0gha–1d–1). Phosphorus export was lowest during the cyclic irrigation period, consistent with the small amounts of discharged drainage water. Our results suggest that cyclic irrigation is an effective district-scale method for reducing effluent P loads. Reuse of drainage water and efficient use of irrigation water are important in reducing the P load from the district.

Concentrations and fluxes of dissolved organic carbon in runoff from a forested catchment: insights from high frequency measurements

Abstract. Concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in runoff from catchments are often subject to substantial short-term variations. The aim of this study was to identify the compartmental sources of DOC in a forested catchment and the causes for short-term variations in runoff. Furthermore, we investigated the implication of short-term variations for the calculation of annual runoff fluxes. High frequency measurements (30 min intervals) of DOC in runoff, of discharge and groundwater table were conducted for one year in the 4.2 km2 forested Lehstenbach catchment, Germany. Riparian wetland soils represent about 30% of the catchment area. The quality of DOC was investigated by three dimensional fluorescence excitation-emission matrices in samples taken from runoff, deep groundwater and shallow groundwater from the riparian wetland soils. The concentrations of DOC in runoff were highly variable at an hourly to daily time scale, ranging from 2.6 mg L−1 to 34 mg L−1 with an annual average of 9.2 mg L−1. The concentrations were positively related to discharge, with a counter clockwise hysteresis. Relations of DOC to discharge were steeper and the degree of hysteresis larger in the summer/fall than in the winter/spring period. Dynamics of groundwater table, discharge, DOC concentrations and DOC quality parameters indicated that DOC in runoff originated mainly from the riparian wetland soils, both under low and high flow conditions. The annual export of DOC from the catchment was 84 kg C ha−1 yr−1 when calculated from the high frequency measurements. If the annual export was calculated by simulated samplings of >2 days intervals substantial deviations resulted. Predicted changes in precipitation and discharge patterns as well as generally increasing temperatures likely will cause raising DOC exports from this catchment.

Hydrologic Drivers and Seasonality of Dissolved Organic Carbon Concentration, Nitrogen Content, Bioavailability, and Export in a Forested New England Stream

We present the results of a full year of high-resolution monitoring of hydrologic event-driven export of stream dissolved organic matter (DOM) from the forested Bigelow Brook watershed in Harvard Forest, Massachusetts, USA. A combination of in situ fluorescent dissolved organic matter (FDOM) measurement, grab samples, and bioassays was utilized. FDOM was identified as a strong indicator of concentration for dissolved organic carbon (DOC, r 2 = 0.96), dissolved organic nitrogen (DON, r 2 = 0.81), and bioavailable DOC (BDOC, r 2 = 0.81). Relationships between FDOM and concentration were utilized to improve characterization of patterns of hydrological event-driven export and the quantification of annual export. This characterization was possible because DOM composition remained relatively consistent seasonally; however, a subtle shift to increased fluorescence per unit absorbance was observed for summer and fall seasons and percent BDOC did increase slightly with increasing concentrations. The majority of export occurred during pulsed hydrological events, so the greatest impact of bioavailable exports may be on downstream aquatic ecosystems. Export from individual events was highly seasonal in nature with the highest flow weighted mean concentrations (DOCFW) being observed in late summer and fall months, but the highest total export being observed for larger winter storms. Seasonal trends in DOC export coincide with weather driven changes in surface and subsurface flow paths, potential for depletion and rebuilding of a flushable soil organic matter pool, and the availability of terrestrial carbon sources such as leaf litter. Our approach and findings demonstrate the utility of high frequency FDOM measurement to improve estimates of intra-annual temporal trends of DOM export.

Effect of development on water quality for seven streams in North Carolina

In this study, baseflow and storm discharges were monitored in seven watersheds of varying development density to document the effects of development on stream water quality. In addition, two of the watersheds contained package wastewater treatment facilities, which were evaluated as an alternative to residential on-site septic systems. Monthly grab samples of baseflow and flow-proportional samples of storm event discharge were collected and analyzed for nitrogen, phosphorus, sediment, and bacteria. For the five watersheds without wastewater treatment facilities, a significant linear relationship was documented between fecal coliform and enterococci levels in baseflow samples and the percentage of residential or impervious area. For the two watersheds with wastewater discharge, bacteria levels were significantly greater than those from the two relatively undeveloped watersheds. These results indicate that bacteria levels increased with increasing residential development even if many of the septic systems were replaced by a community wastewater treatment system. Computed annual export rates for ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) were correlated to the percentage of impervious surfaces in the watersheds, while the rates for other nitrogen forms, total phosphorus, and total suspended sediment were not. Annual export rates from the two mostly undeveloped watersheds were greater than a compilation of rates for undeveloped areas across the USA. Export from the four watersheds with more than 68% residential land use was less than those reported from local and national studies of residential areas.

Efficiency Measurement of Supply Chain in the Export Frozen Vegetable Industry: A Network DEA Approach

Food and agricultural production in Thailand play an indispensable role in economic growth. The frozen vegetable industry is considered to be important due to its increasing annual exports. The goal of this paper is to measure the efficiency of export frozen vegetables using network DEA. We use the two-stage model to measures efficiency by separating the supply chain structure into suppliers and manufacturers. There are 12 criteria used for inputs and outputs. The results show that out of 8 organizations with supply chains, only 2 chains are efficient according to the BCC-O model and only 1 chain is efficient under the CCR-O model. However, if the manufacturer's role in the supply chain is considered, the results show that the majority of these manufacturers are efficient.

Deep instability of deforested tropical peatlands revealed by fluvial organic carbon fluxes

Tropical peatlands contain one of the largest pools of terrestrial organic carbon, amounting to about 89,000 teragrams (1 Tg is a billion kilograms). Approximately 65 per cent of this carbon store is in Indonesia, where extensive anthropogenic degradation in the form of deforestation, drainage and fire are converting it into a globally significant source of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Here we quantify the annual export of fluvial organic carbon from both intact peat swamp forest and peat swamp forest subject to past anthropogenic disturbance. We find that the total fluvial organic carbon flux from disturbed peat swamp forest is about 50 per cent larger than that from intact peat swamp forest. By carbon-14 dating of dissolved organic carbon (which makes up over 91 per cent of total organic carbon), we find that leaching of dissolved organic carbon from intact peat swamp forest is derived mainly from recent primary production (plant growth). In contrast, dissolved organic carbon from disturbed peat swamp forest consists mostly of much older (centuries to millennia) carbon from deep within the peat column. When we include the fluvial carbon loss term, which is often ignored, in the peatland carbon budget, we find that it increases the estimate of total carbon lost from the disturbed peatlands in our study by 22 per cent. We further estimate that since 1990 peatland disturbance has resulted in a 32 per cent increase in fluvial organic carbon flux from southeast Asia--an increase that is more than half of the entire annual fluvial organic carbon flux from all European peatlands. Our findings emphasize the need to quantify fluvial carbon losses in order to improve estimates of the impact of deforestation and drainage on tropical peatland carbon balances.

Decomposing Aggregate Trade Flows: New Evidence from U.S. Traders

Using firm-level data on export transactions, we uncover a rich set of results about the extensive margins of exporting and exporter responses during periods of global downturns. We perform our analysis with respect to firm size, age, ownership status, and sector to emphasize the role of firm heterogeneity. We uncover a larger role for firm entry and exit in changes in annual export flows of single-unit, smaller, and younger firms. Young, small firms perform best during both periods of crises as well as non-crises periods. We also decompose the margins of U.S. imports at the U.S. importer, foreign supplier, and U.S. importer-foreign supplier pair levels. While export flows are closely correlated with global business cycles, import flows more closely approximate U.S. economic cycles. Additionally, both pair and foreign supplier flows are far more volatile than U.S. import flows, that is, U.S. importer-foreign supplier matches experience more churning on average than do either U.S. importers or foreign suppliers.

Remittances from Saudi Arabia: A Community Phenomenon

Remittances are increasingly becoming an essential source of foreign exchange in developing countries, in some cases, even more than official development assistance. Recent estimates from the World Bank indicate that global remittances are expected to exceed $590 billion, with almost 75 percent of these remittances flowing to the developing countries. Pakistan became the fifth largest remittance-recipient nation in the developing world in 2011,1 registering a strong growth of 25.8 percent, relative to a 10.1 percent growth in remittances to South Asia. According to an IMF research paper, workers’ remittances contribute almost 4 percent to the country’s GDP, and are equivalent to almost 22 percent of annual exports of goods and services.2 Remittances to Pakistan have shown a strong rising trend; from being less than $2 billion dollars in 1997 to reaching almost $10 billion in 2010. In fact, the total remittances sent home by overseas Pakistani workers have more than quadrupled in the last eight years to more than $13.186 billion,3 the highest-ever amount received in a year by the country in the last fiscal year, which ended in June 2012. Interestingly, the almost 1.5 million Pakistani expatriates residing in Saudi Arabia send more remittances to Pakistan than from expatriates working and residing in other countries