Annual Coverage Research Articles

Possibilities Study of Using Hybrid Solar Collectors in Northeastern Libya Residential Home

The majority of electricity generated in Libya comes from fossil fuels. More oil and gas will be consumed, resulting in higher CO 2 emissions, as energy demand is projected to grow sharply in the near future. A feasibility study of a climate photovoltaic solar thermal collector and its relation to solar photovoltaic and solar water heating systems is being conducted. Based on population consumption in northeastern Libya, the study aims to determine the daily and annual electrical load coverage of 10.5 and 3942 kWh/year, respectively. The Polysun software simulation was used to analyze the electrical and thermal efficiency environment of Almarj city as a case study. Three of 280 W monocrystalline crystal solar collectors were used to generate 1445 kWh/year. By the number of collectors from five to seven, 3420 kWh/year can be generated. Increasing the number of collectors to nine protected 10.5 kWh/day, resulting in 4733 kWh/year of electrical energy, and the average annual consumption of a house is about 10,529 kWh. If the Libyan network losses are ignored, the device will use 263,225 MWh over its 25-year lifespan, resulting in a fuel cost of $47,380. The estimated annual savings per house is 1895 dollars, and the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions for light oil, heavy oil, and gas is 252, 195, and 15447 kg, respectively. Based on the existing study, the hybrid system has a substantial economic viability system compared to other solar systems, depending on the demand for power, heat, or a combination of both. As a result, the Almarj residential on-grid electrical loads, fossil fuel demand, global warming, and pollution to the atmosphere will all be reduced. https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.13090127.2021.11.2.15.4

Identifying the Threshold Level of Flooding for Rice Production in Bangladesh: An Empirical Analysis

Flood is responsible for the agricultural production scheme and livelihood well-being in Bangladesh. It is the most frequent catastrophe that affects crop production in terms of area coverage and yield. However, a normal flood is beneficial for the ecology and environment. As rice is the most important crop for sustaining the food security of the country, this study identified the threshold level of flooding for rice area coverage and production. The study used the time series data of annual rice area coverage, production, and flooding area in a well-established threshold regression model. The empirical results expose that flooding 22 percent of the geographical area is the threshold value for rice area coverage and production in Bangladesh. Up to the threshold level (22 percent), a one square kilometer increase in flooding would increase the rice area coverage by 31 hectares, as flooding would bring more land under cultivation. Beyond the threshold limit, a one square kilometer increase in flooding would reduce the rice area coverage by 2 hectares. On the other hand, the production of rice would increase by 492 tons with a one square kilometer increase in flooding up to the threshold limit. However, the rice production would reduce by 70 tons if a one square kilometer increase flooding above the threshold limit. On top of that, both the rice area coverage and production showed increasing trends with the increase in flooding level in the last few years. The reasons behind this aregovernment supports, subsidies, incentives, and stress coping strategies towards accelerating national production to overcome the effects of the flood to sustain national food security; development of stress-tolerant and high yielding modern rice varieties by the research organizations; and replacing the local varieties with these modern varieties by the farmers and extension workers in Bangladesh.

Vegetation variation trend and its influencing factors in Urad Grassland over remote sensing

In this work, the temporal-spatial dynamic variation of vegetation coverage from 2010 to 2019 in Urad Grassland has been explored by remote sensing technique. The change of precipitation and temperature has obvious effects on the vegetation, which affects the agriculture and the stability of the ecosystem. Pixel dichotomy approach and correlation analysis are introduced to analyse the temporal and spatial evolution trend of vegetation coverage and its response to climate change in the past 10 years. Specifically, the correlation between vegetation coverage and the critical climate impacting factors such as temperature and precipitation are fully investigated. The results show the vegetation coverage in the study area was influenced by effectors including climate, topography, human activities and government policies. The average annual vegetation coverage showed a downward trend in general from 2010 to 2019. Statistical correlation analysis indicates that the correlation between the vegetation coverage and the precipitation is positive in most parts of the area, while the correlation between the vegetation coverage and the precipitation shows negative with difference with various geographic features. As a result, precipitation was the major natural factor that affected dynamics of vegetation coverage in Urad grassland.

Sakura, la Flor Japonesa en la Comunicación del Cambio Climático: Estudio Exploratorio sobre una Serie Periodística del Diario Mainichi Shimbun (2016-2020)

Entender la problemática del cambio climático como elemento central de una crisis civilizatoria de la modernidad occidental exige un mayor conocimiento de la diversidad de culturas-naturalezas. Este artículo aborda la historia ambiental de Japón desde un enfoque comunicacional a partir del caso de estudio de las representaciones de la flor de cerezo (sakura). Considerada un símbolo de Japón, la sakura está asociada con la primavera en la “cultura de las cuatro estaciones”. En la contemporaneidad, el anuncio de su floración es motivo de coberturas mediáticas anuales debido a la costumbre extendida del Hanami (reunión de observación de la flor). Este estudio exploratorio aborda la serie periodística sobre los impactos del cambio climático en los patrones de floración de la sakura del diario Mainichi Shimbun (2016-2020). Constatamos que el porcentaje de publicaciones coincide con la estacionalidad de marzo y abril. La serie periodística se inaugura en la Sección Ciencia por la difusión de investigaciones en ciencias forestales. Luego se transpone como nuevo criterio de noticiabilidad a otras secciones generalistas, como la Local. Así, la noticia de la alteración en los tiempos de la floración de la sakura puede manifestar un indicio concreto del cambio climático en la vida cotidiana de la sociedad japonesa.

Periodic deworming programme in Brazil

To evaluate the periodic deworming programme (PDP) against soil-transmitted helminth infection and estimate the cost-benefit of this action in a Northeastern Brazilian State. An observational descriptive study was peformed by two branches: an epidemiological analysis of parasitological stool tests positivity in the 7 health micro-regions of Sergipe State, from January to June 2019, and a cost-benefitial analysis through comparison between estimated costs of PDP and conventional diagnose and treatment method from 2014 to 2018. From the 1110 parasitological stool tests evaluated, 317 were positive: 20 (1.8 %) for helminths and 307 (26.7%) for protozoan parasites. Among positive tests, 61 (19.2%) were in PDP age target group (5-14 years). An annual average of 255,283 Albendazole tablets (400mg, single dose) were distributed with an annual average coverage rate of 84.2%. To support the programme, approximately R$ 281,859.25 (US$ 89,775.67) were transferred per year to the state of Sergipe. PDP estimated cost-effectiveness was R$ 1.10 (US$ 0.34) per event prevented and generated a cost-minimization of approximately R$ 335.617,60 (US$124,568.00) when compared to the conventional diagnose and treat method. The positive rates of soil-transmitted helminth infection in parasitological tests in Sergipe were low and the recommendation for PDP seems to be currently inadequate. Most positive tests were for commensal protozoa species. PDP estimated cost is lower than conventional diagnose and treatment method. Protozoa infections prevention policies should be evaluated as they are the major parasitic infection in our community after PDP.

Situação vacinal de adolescentes escolares contra o HPV e fatores associados

Objetivo: Analisar a situação vacinal contra o HPV de adolescentes escolares e seus fatores associados. Método: Trata-se de um estudo descritivo com abordagem quantitativa, realizado com 502 adolescentes de escolas da rede pública de ensino municipal e estadual, situadas no municí­pio de Picos no estado do Piauí­, no ano de 2018 e com dados do DATASUS. Resultados: Dos adolescentes pesquisados, o sexo feminino apresentou maior acesso e maior cobertura vacinal anual a vacina contra o HPV, representado respectivamente por 74,91% e 46,20% dos escolares. No entanto, de acordo com as informações do DATASUS, referentes ao acesso dos adolescentes demostraram que os meninos tiveram um maior acesso í vacina representado por 20,04%, e também uma maior cobertura vacinal anual representado por 8,97%. Conclusão: O acesso e a cobertura vacinal para este imunobiológico apresentam-se bem abaixo do recomendado, demandando assim, novas ações com objetivo de aumentar a adesão desses adolescentes a vacina.

Burden of influenza in Romania – Costs and Consequences

Background: Although the preventative health policy recommends annual influenza vaccination coverage of 75% for the high risk groups, Romania lags much behind this target, the highest coverage being in the over 65 years old, and reached around 20% in 2018. The aim of the study is to evaluate epidemiological and economical burden of influenza in Romania. Methods and materials: A static cohort model that incorporates costs and health outcomes associated with influenza was used to evaluate influenza burden during an average influenza season in Romania. Relevant aggregated data at national level were extracted from administrative databases for attributable influenza infections (ICD-10 codes J10.x, J11.x, and a share of J12.x and J18.x) over the last 5 seasons. Parameters used in the model were found in published studies or derived from public sources. Results: High variability is observed in the seasonal incidence of attributable influenza infection, the highest affected group is children 0-4 years old. Mortality rate due to infection attributable to influenza is low, but has been increasing for the last five seasons likely due to better reporting, and most impacted group is over 65 years old. The highest proportion of direct costs is attributable to hospitalizations (53%) and indirect costs are driven by productivity loss due to medical leaves (98%). The average direct cost of influenza case per season is 112 EUR while a severe hospitalized case is 5000 EUR. Total costs of influenza in one season accounts for 0.74% of health budget (2019) and 0.037% of Romanian GDP (2018). Results correspond to reported infections attributable to influenza and not lab-confirmed influenza. Country-specific parameters related to intensity of care at general practitioners level and their prescription patterns were neither available, nor in the literature, thus assumption were made based on clinical experts opinion and their impact on direct costs appeared to be very limited (<2%). Conclusion: Every season, infections attributable to influenza account for an important number of consultations and hospitalizations, especially for children aged of 0–4 years. Severe cases and mortality, although relatively rare, are impacting disproportionately elderly and have very high costs attached.

Paper Cuts: How Reporting Resources Affect Political News Coverage

AbstractMedia outlets provide crucial inputs into the democratic process, yet they face increasingly severe economic challenges. I study how a newly salient manifestation of this pressure, reduced reporting capacity, influences political coverage. Focusing on newspapers in the United States, where industry‐wide employment fell over 40% between 2007 and 2015, I use panel data to assess the relationship between reporting capacity and political coverage. Staff cuts substantially decrease the amount of political coverage newspapers provide. Across different samples and measurement approaches, a typical cutback to a newspaper's reporting staff reduces its annual political coverage by between 300 and 500 stories. These political news declines happen against the backdrop of similar reductions in nonpolitical coverage, meaning the share of newspaper articles focused on politics remains stable over this period. This demonstrates that economic pressure affects the political information environment by shaping the media's capacity to cover politics.

Prominent vegetation greening and its correlation with climatic variables in northern China.

Global vegetation has been reported to be turning greener, especially in China and India. The Yellow River Basin is one of the most prominent greening areas in China. While some studies have attributed vegetation greening to large-scale ecological restoration efforts, our study focuses on the role of climate change in vegetation greening. We selected a time series of annual vegetation net primary productivity (NPP) and vegetation coverage from satellite data to quantify the vegetation greening trend. Annual temperature and precipitation were selected to examine the climate trend from 2000 to 2019. The results showed that the Yellow River Basin experienced a rapid increase in temperature and precipitation during this period. Annual temperature increased with an average speed of 0.905°C per decade, approximately 4.5 times larger than that of global warming. Annual precipitation increased by 82.8%, with an average speed of 9.17mm per year. There was widespread vegetation greening in the Yellow River Basin during 2000-2019. This was demonstrated by an increase in vegetation NPP and vegetation coverage in the Yellow River Basin. The increase of annual NPP and coverage from 2000 to 1019 was 26.6% and 30.8%, respectively. Even while considering the effects of conservation and restoration efforts, the rapid increases in temperature and precipitation allowed vegetation to flourish, as evidenced by significant positive correlations between climate variables and vegetation variables. Therefore, climate change played an important positive role in vegetation greening, rather than an undesirable disturbance.

Flu vaccination among health workers in Italy: results from the nationwide surveillance PASSI 2015-18

Abstract Background Influenza causes a significant health and socio-economic burden every year. Healthcare workers (HCWs) are at higher risk of exposure to respiratory pathogens than general population, including seasonal influenza virus, with potential threats to their health and patients' safety. We aimed to estimate the adherence to flu vaccination of health workers in 2015-2018 seasons in Italy. Methods We analyzed data collected between 2015 and 2018 from the Italian Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (PASSI). PASSI collects data on health behaviors in the adults (18-64 years) through telephonic administration of standardized questionnaires to a representative sample of Italian population. The answers related to flu vaccination refer to the vaccination campaign preceding the interview Results Preliminary data show that overall 11.9% (CI 10.3% - 13.7%) of HCWs reported to have been vaccinated vs 7.2% (CI 6.9% - 7.5%) of the total population sample. Physicians showed a higher overall adherence compared to other healthcare professionals (22.4% [CI 18% - 27.5%] vs 9% [CI 7.4% - 10.9%], respectively). Differences of adherence were found also across age groups: 18.3% [CI 15% - 22.2%] of respondents between 50-64 years reported to have received a vaccination compared to 10% (CI 7.9% - 12.5%) and 4.3% (CI 2.8% - 6.4%) of 35-49 years and 18-34 years age groups, respectively. The annual influenza vaccination coverage for people working in healthcare has increased over the years (9.8% in 2015 vs 14.1% in 2018). Conclusions Although coverage rates are increasing over time, adherence to influenza vaccination is still too low, especially among younger HCWs and non-medical HCWs. Strategic actions, such as local and national programs to increase self-awareness of being an at-high-risk category for contracting and transmitting infections and/or mandatory vaccination, should be adopted to sharply achieve an optimal coverage rate for HCWs. Key messages Adherence to seasonal influenza vaccination is still very low among Italian HCWs. A participatory attitude towards vaccination for HCWs should be pursued. Monitoring and reporting process should be improved to provide further detailed evidence for adopting targeted programs.

Impact of Routine Infant BCG Vaccination on COVID-19

In Japan, the first case of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was diagnosed on January 15, 2020 and subsequent infections rapidly increased. The Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination program is the principal element of tuberculosis control in Japan. We investigated the impact of routine infant BCG vaccination on prevention of local COVID-19 spread. Data on the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection, annual routine infant BCG vaccine coverage (represented by the number of BCG vaccinations per live births), and other candidate factors in each prefecture were obtained from the official notifications database in Japan. We analysed the association of vaccine coverage with the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection. The BCG vaccine coverage in 1999-2002, 2004, and 2012 in five prefectures with no COVID-19 infections was significantly higher than that in five prefectures with a high prevalence of infections (Mann-Whitney U test, p<0.05). The prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection was significantly negatively correlated with BCG vaccine coverage in 2004 and was significantly positively correlated with age groups 20-34 and 40-54 years (Spearman's rank correlation, p<0.01). Our findings suggest that routine infant BCG vaccination coverage in young generation had a significant impact on prevention of local COVID-19 spread in Japan.

On the path towards universal coverage of hepatitis C treatment among people receiving opioid agonist therapy (OAT) in Norway: a prospective cohort study from 2013 to 2017

ObjectivesWe aimed to calculate cumulative hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment coverage among individuals enrolled in opioid agonist therapy (OAT) in Norway between 2013 and 2017 and to document the treatment...

Spatiotemporal clustering analysis of Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) vaccination coverage in Pakistan

Universal vaccination coverage is still far from desired targets in many global regions including Pakistan, despite the success stories and its scientifically proven benefits. EPI Pakistan vaccination coverage data 2012–2016, at district level was collected from Federal EPI Pakistan. District-wise population data were collected from Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. Descriptive statistics and sequence plots were performed in SPSS 13.0. Purely spatial scanning analysis was done in SaTScan 9.4.4 using discrete Poisson model for detection of low vaccination coverage clusters. Geographical information system (GIS) was used to display spatial patterns and clusters of low vaccination coverage districts in Pakistan. Average annual EPI vaccination coverage in each study year were; 70.98 in 2012, 69.39% in 2013, 66.74% in 2014, 61.47% in 2015, and 67.01% in 2016, respectively. Cumulative average national vaccination rate (2012–2016) for all types of EPI vaccines was 60.60%. Average national vaccination rate for BCG, OPV3, pentavalent3 and measles1 was 67.12%, 58.53%, 58.47%, and 58.29%, respectively. Spatial cluster analysis demonstrated that most of low coverage districts for BCG, OPV3 and pentavalent3 were from FATA and KPK; while measles1 low coverage districts belonged to Balochistan. Future research should probe factors involved in low vaccination coverage in high risk districts.

SUSLE: a slope and seasonal rainfall-based RUSLE model for regional quantitative prediction of soil erosion

The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) models are most widely used for quantitative prediction of soil erosion. However, these models have many shortcomings. For example, the annual total rainfall is often adopted, ignoring the inhomogeneity of seasonal rainfall. The adopted vegetation coverage indexes (VCIs) are usually the annual average vegetation coverage or VCIs obtained by monitoring on a specific day, ignoring the seasonal changes in VCIs during the year. In addition, the impact of slope on the conservation practices factor is not considered. To overcome these problem, this study aims to propose a seasonal and slope factor-based RUSLE (SUSLE) model that considers the seasonal changes in rainfall and VCIs and the effect of slope on the conservation practices factor. Based on GIS and remote sensing, the quantitative prediction of soil erosion in Ningdu County, Jiangxi Province, in 2017 is taken as a case study. The traditional RUSLE model and the proposed SUSLE model are analyzed and compared. Results show that the overall distribution characteristics of soil erosion in the two models are similar that the SUSLE model is more consistent than the RUSLE model in all erosion levels and that the prediction performances of the SUSLE model in the very low, moderate, and high erosion levels are better than those of the RUSLE model. The distribution characteristics of soil erosion in different periods and the relationships between soil erosion and environmental factors (e.g., slope and land use) under the SUSLE model are discussed. The results show that the maximum erosion area occurred in spring and the minimum area in autumn; the soil erosion amount on slopes of 8~25° reached 65.14% of the total amount; bare grassland and cultivated land are the main land cover types impacted by soil erosion in Ningdu County.

TB infection and BCG vaccination: are we protected from COVID-19?

ObjectivesThe incidence of emerging coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) disease is variable across the different parts of the world. Apart from travel patterns, other factors determining this difference may include host immune response. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of tuberculosis (TB) endemicity and Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) coverage on COVID-19. Study designThis was a cross-sectional study. MethodsWe reviewed available data regarding TB incidence, BCG coverage (as per the World Health Organization), and COVID-19 incidence of 174 countries. We divided the countries into four cohorts depending on annual TB incidence and BCG coverage. ResultsCountries with high TB incidence had lower COVID-19 than countries with low TB incidence. Similarly, countries with high BCG coverage had lower incidence of COVID-19, suggesting some protective mechanisms in TB-endemic areas. However, the ecological differences and different testing strategies between countries could not be accounted for in this analysis. ConclusionHigher TB incidence and BCG coverage were found to be associated with lesser incidence of COVID-19. This outcome paves the way for further research into pathogenesis and immune response in COVID-19.

Measuring Financial Access

This departmental paper marks the 10th anniversary of the IMF Financial Access Survey (FAS). It offers a retrospective of the FAS database, along with some reflections as to its future directions. Since its 2009 launch, the FAS has provided granular data on access to and use of financial services. It is a supply-side database with annual global coverage based on data sourced directly from financial service providers—aimed at supporting policymakers to target and evaluate financial inclusion policies. Its data collection has kept pace with financial innovation, such as the rise of mobile money and growing demand for gender-disaggregated data—and the FAS must continue to evolve.

Computational Simulation and Dimensioning of Solar-Combi Systems for Large-Size Sports Facilities: A Case Study for the Pancretan Stadium, Crete, Greece

The article examines the introduction of solar-combi systems in large-size sports facilities. The examined solar-combi systems consist of solar collectors, a biomass heater and thermal storage tanks. In a sense, they constitute hybrid thermal power plants. The full mathematical background is presented on the operation of such systems, along with a proposed operation algorithm, aiming at the maximization of the captured solar radiation. A case study is implemented for the coverage of the thermal energy needs for hot water production and swimming pools heating, met in the Pancretan Stadium, Crete, Greece. In this way, the article aims to indicate the technical and economic prerequisites that can guarantee the feasibility of the examined systems, highlighting the significant potential contribution of such systems towards the realization of energy transition plans from fossil fuels to renewables. The economic feasibility of the introduced system is based on the avoiding diesel oil and electricity procurement cost, consumed for the coverage of the thermal energy demands under consideration. The optimum dimensioning of the examined case study results to an annual thermal energy demand coverage balance of 55% by the solar collectors and 45% by the biomass heater, giving a payback period of 5–6 years.

High-spatiotemporal-resolution mapping of global urban change from 1985 to 2015

High-resolution global maps of annual urban land coverage provide fundamental information of global environmental change and contribute to applications related to climate mitigation and urban planning for sustainable development. Here we map global annual urban dynamics from 1985 to 2015 at a 30 m resolution using numerous surface reflectance data from Landsat satellites. We find that global urban extent has expanded by 9,687 km2 per year. This rate is four times greater than previous reputable estimates from worldwide individual cities, suggesting an unprecedented rate of global urbanization. The rate of urban expansion is notably faster than that of population growth, indicating that the urban land area already exceeds what is needed to sustain population growth. Looking ahead, using these maps in conjunction with integrated assessment models can facilitate greater understanding of the complex environmental impacts of urbanization and help urban planners avoid natural hazards; for example, by limiting new development in flood risk zones. The world keeps urbanizing. This study finds that since 1985 global urban lands have expanded four times faster than previously recognized and faster than population is growing.

Effects of Compound Sand Barrier for Habitat Restoration on Sediment Grain-size Distribution in Ulan Buh Desert

Wind erosion is a huge challenge for ecologists to stabilize sand dunes and to change them into stable productive ecosystems. In order to better understand its role in the process of ecological restoration, the sediment grain-size characteristics of compound sand barrier were evaluated through field experimental observation. The results indicated that the compound sand barrier was mainly composed of extremely fine sand and fine sand, and the fine sand and extremely fine sand in the inner side were higher than the east and west sides of the compound sand barrier. Due to the blocking effect of compound sand barrier, the Sorting Coefficient became better, the Skewness belonged to the positive deviation and the Kurtosis presented leptokurtosis distribution. Moreover, while the cumulative frequency distribution curve in the inner side became steeper, the slope increased and reached the top of the curve ahead of time. The effect of wind environment and vegetation coverage on the surface sediments showed that the average annual wind velocity and vegetation coverage was negatively correlated with the average grain-size, but positively correlated with the Sorting Coefficient. There was a significant correlation among the annual wind speed, vegetation coverage, average grain-size and Sorting Coefficient, which indicated that vegetation coverage and wind environment was the key factor leading to the difference of surface sediments in this area. Collectively, the establishment of compound sand barrier is one of the most effective methods of sand-fixing with engineering measure in the arid desert regions. Therefore, given the complexities of agricultural systems, stubble retention and black film covered during harvesting and incorporation of the stubble into soil in the next spring appears to be the best choice in the dry northern China where farmlands suffer serious wind erosion.

EVOLUTION ANALYSIS OF WATERCOURSE AND SHOALS OF THE XUNJIANG RIVER IN WUZHOU BASED ON TIME-SERIES REMOTE SENSING DATA

Abstract. Wuzhou reach of Xunjiang River is the most valuable waterway in Guangxi. The research on the evolution of Xunjiang River in Wuzhou is of great practical significance in the aspects of river regulation and water conservancy construction. Based on Landsat images of normal water level in 1997, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2014 and 2018, this paper firstly conducts a quantitative analysis of evolution of the watercourse and shoals in Wuzhou section of Xunjiang River through using RS and GIS. Then the relationships between the changes of river course and sandbars of the research area and the annual rainfall and vegetation coverage of the upstream region are analyzed to determine the causes of the changes of watercourse and shoals of Xunjiang River in Wuzhou. The results show that the riverway contracted with a contraction amount of about 9.93 km2 from 1997 to 2005, and the expansion volume of sandbars was about 12.21 km2. From 2005 to 2014, the watercourse approximately expanded 12.33 km2, and the shoals shrank about 12.49 km2. From 2014 to 2018, the river course was a contraction trend, reducing about 1.57 km2 in area; the sandbars showed an expanding trend, with an expanding amount of about 0.82 km2. The changes of river channel and shoals are mainly influenced by the incoming water and silt from the upper reaches and are related to the annual rainfall and vegetation coverage of the upstream area. The correlation coefficient between watercourse area and upstream annual rainfall is 0.26, and that between riverway area and upstream vegetation coverage is 0.78. However, the correlations between the area of shoals and the annual rainfall and vegetation coverage of the upstream region are contrary to that of the river channel. The correlation coefficients between the area of shoals and the annual rainfall and vegetation coverage of the upstream district are −0.28 and −0.83 respectively.