Anisotropic Mechanical Behavior Research Articles

Mechanical Properties of Cycled Single Crystal LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811) Particles

Single crystal (SC) particle morphologies are attracting significant attention as an alternative to polycrystalline (PC) secondary particles within battery cathodes, to circumvent the degradation paths associated with weak grain boundaries. In the pristine state, the key cathode material LiNi0.8 Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811) exhibits anisotropic mechanical behaviour due to its trigonal R‐3m crystal lattice. Here the mechanical properties of cycled SC NMC811 particles are evaluated in real time using in situ compression in a scanning electron microscope (SEM), as a function of both particle orientation, and electrochemical charge‐discharge rate. After 100 cycles, the SC NMC811 particles retain their external morphology, however their non‐basal and basal plane fracture strengths systematically decrease as a function of increasing charge rate C/10 to 2C, consistent with accelerated lattice degradation. For all charge rates, the cycled and discharged NMC811 single crystal particles retain the R‐3m crystallographic dependence of their strength and deformation mechanisms, with cycled SC particles strongest for compression normal to the (0001) layered structure. The accelerated mechanical softening of cycled NMC811 SC particles at higher C‐rates occurs in parallel with degradation of the electrochemical performance of the NMC811 single crystals, and indicates a higher risk of fracture‐related degradation processes with fast‐charging regimes.

Transverse texture weakening and anisotropy improvement of Ti-6Al-4V alloy sheet via asymmetric rolling and static recrystallization annealing

Traditional rolled titanium alloys usually exhibit a distinct transverse texture, which is quite stable in subsequent annealing and leads to anisotropic mechanical behaviors. In this work, Ti-6Al-4V alloy was fabricated by asymmetric rolling and recrystallization annealing. The microstructure, texture, and anisotropy evolution were systematically studied. The results show that the <0001>//ND ± 30° RD texture component is formed during the rolling thinning process under the combined action of compressive stress and shear stress. The corresponding grains and αs prioritize nucleation and grow rapidly during subsequent annealing. The transverse texture are consumed or swallowed up before they grow up. The β phases provide secondary nucleation points for α grains. As a result, grains grown rapidly are decomposed and orientations are further established on adjacent matrix. The grains formed by preferential growth and secondary nucleation show more random orientation, and volume fraction of complete transverse texture decreases from 60.1% to 19.3%. Accordingly, the anisotropy of yield strength and tensile strength is decreased by 181MPa and 195MPa, respectively. The transverse texture is weakened by asymmetric rolling and static recrystallization, which provides an efficient way for producing high-performance rolled titanium alloy in the industry.

Mechanical behaviour of 3D printed fiber-reinforced soft functional hydrogel composite: Opportunities for biomedical applications

Owing to the unique native properties of cellulose, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and excellent mechanical properties, it offers new strategies for designing environment-friendly, cost-effective, and high-mechanically robust hydrogel composites. Herein, we proposed the fabrication of 3D printed nature-inspired cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) reinforced anisotropic functional nanocomposite hydrogel structure.In this hypothetical study, we focuses on to develop nature-inspired 3D-printed Polyacrylamide PAM / Alginate (Alg) based single layered and multilayered laminate hydrogel composites reinforced with anisotropically oriented CNFs and performing finite element (FE) analysis study via implementing measured experimental material properties to explore the CNF reinforcement mechanism in the fiber-reinforced composite hydrogel. The FE modelling and simulation are based on an idealised anisotropic hyperelastic model used to analyse the anisotropic mechanical behaviour of the 3D printed hydrogel composite structure. The computational study of the nature-inspired printed helicoidally layup hydrogel composite construct exhibit enhanced mechanical properties, which offered appreciable stretchability, toughness and anisotropic mechanical behavior.It will assist the design of the more mechanically compliance composite hydrogel structure, making it suitable for load-bearing biomedical applications.

Discrete element modeling method for anisotropic mechanical behavior of biotite quartz schist based on mineral identification technology

Discrete element modeling method for anisotropic mechanical behavior of biotite quartz schist based on mineral identification technology

Productive automation of calibration processes for crystal plasticity model parameters via reinforcement learning

Crystal Plasticity Finite Element (CPFE), which merges crystal plasticity principles with finite element analysis, can simulate the anisotropic grain-level mechanical behaviour of polycrystalline materials. Due to the benefit of CPFE, it has been widely utilised to analyse processes such as manufacturing, damage, and deformation where the microstructure plays a prominent role. However, this method is computationally expensive and requires the robust calibration of its parameters, which can be many. In this work, we propose a framework to address difficulties in calibrating multi-parameter CPFE. The Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (DDPG) algorithm, a Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) approach, is utilised to optimise the CPFE parameters. Additionally, a Python-based environment is developed to fully automate the calibration process. To allow comparison with the conventional optimisation method, the Particle Swarm Optimisation (PSO) algorithm is also used, which shows the DDPG framework yields more accurate calibration. The generalisation performance of the proposed framework is also demonstrated by calibrating each parameter set of two different CPFE models for monotonic loading of the stainless steel type, 316L. Moreover, the effectiveness of the framework in the more complex condition is also demonstrated by calibrating the CPFE parameters for a two-cycle cyclic behaviour of a 316H stainless steel material. The reliability of these calibrated parameters is also validated in the cyclic simulation after two cycles.

Grain size hardening versus texture softening: Mechanical anisotropy of an AZ31B magnesium alloy processed by equal-channel angular pressing

Microstructural evolution of hexagonally close-packed (hcp) alloys subjected to severe plastic deformation differs from that of alloys with cubic crystal structure. While grain refinement is the main objective in conventional ECAP texture changes in hcp materials can result in lower strength but improved ductility depending on the deformation direction. This paper addresses the question of how the processes of grain size hardening and texture softening contribute to the highly anisotropic mechanical behavior of a severely deformed AZ31B magnesium alloy. ECAP is performed at different temperatures starting at 250 °C for the first 4 passes and subsequently reduced to 200 °C (C5, C6) and 150 °C (C7, C8). The mechanical properties of the resulting material conditions are investigated with tensile tests in four different deformation directions. While the yield strength increases up to 280 MPa in the transverse direction (TD), an opposite trend of low strength and good ductility can be observed for deformation in the extrusion (ED) and normal directions (ND). Additional microstructural investigations using EBSD show that the grain size is reduced by 95% during ECAP. Moreover, texture measurements using XRD reveal a strong fiber texture, with a high number of basal planes parallel to the shear plane of ECAP deformation, which results in a significantly improved ductility and lower strength in ED and ND. The results are discussed in the light of the competition between grain size hardening and texture softening. They highlight the potential of ECAP for the improvement of strength and ductility for magnesium alloys.

Investigating the Anisotropic Mechanical Behaviour of Steel Fibre-Reinforced Aluminium-Base Composites

Base metals are often reinforced with fibres to improve their mechanical behaviour; however, it is imperative to decide the range of fibres orientation that would yield favourable strength. In this work, using sand casting method, aluminium is reinforced with galvanized steel fibres at different orientations with the aim of investigating the anisotropic mechanical behaviour of the composites. The fibre orientations considered are 0°, 30°, 60° and 90°; while the mechanical properties evaluated are impact energy, tensile, compressive and fatigue properties. Unreinforced aluminium exhibits impact energy, elongation-at-fracture, ultimate tensile strength, and maximum compressive strength of 5.15 J, 15.88%, 72.56 MN/m2, and 231.13 MN/m2, respectively. With deviation of composite fibre orientation from 0° to 30°, 60° and 90°, impact energy decreases from 8.68 to 5.56, 4.75 and 4.61 J; elongation-at-fracture decreases from 24.58 to 17.91, 12.20 and 11.87%; ultimate tensile strength decreases from 132.70 to 89.17, 63.67 and 60.34 MN/m2; and maximum compressive strength decreases from 310.66 to 251.06, 226.91 and 209.93 MN/m2. At fatigue stress amplitude of 850 MN/m2, the fatigue life of unreinforced specimen is 26 numbers of cycles-to-failure; while the deviation of composite fibre orientation from 0° to 30°, 60° and 90° yielded reduction in fatigue life from 64 to 36, 20 and 14 numbers of cycles-to-failure. Also, reduction in fatigue stress amplitude was found to increase the fatigue life of the specimens. The fatigue limit (or endurance limit) of unreinforeced specimen, and composite specimen having 0°, 30°, 60° and 90° fibre orientations are found to be 40, 70, 45, 35 and 25 MN/m2, respectively; and the corresponding fatigue life are observed to be 35480, 199518, 112195, 10021 and 5297 numbers of cycles-to-failure, respectively. The findings in this work show that specimens with 0° fibre orientation have the highest endurance of deformation before fracture, followed by specimens with 30° fibre orientation, unreinforced specimens, specimens with 60° fibre orientation and specimens with 90° fibre orientation. This could be attributed to the fact that 0° fibre orientation offers continuous reinforcement spanning the longitudinal axis of the specimens, while fibre orientation from 30° to 90° offer areas of different degrees of shear stress concentration at fibre-matrix contacts aiding fibre-matrix debonding and crack propagation. In conclusion, this work shows that orientation of steel fibre reinforcement in aluminium matrix could be varied to achieve ranges of mechanical properties and performance needed for different practical applications.

Unraveling anisotropic mechanical behaviors of lithium-ion battery separators: Microstructure insights

The mechanical properties of separators significantly affect the electrochemical stability and potential short circuit risks in lithium-ion batteries. An important aspect of their mechanical behavior is their anisotropy, which is predominantly influenced by the microstructures formed during manufacturing process. This study aims to bridge the gap between the anisotropic mechanical features of the separators and their microstructures caused by the manufacturing methods. Initially, we delve into the characterization of separators, featuring their heterogeneous components and orientated arrangement of fibers. Then, we conduct uniaxial tensile tests to measure the stress-strain relationships of separators along the machine direction (MD), diagonal direction (DD), and transverse direction (TD), revealing pronounced anisotropy in both strength and rate sensitivity. Subsequently, image processing techniques is adopted to obtain a representative configuration of separators, which is further divided into fibers and lamellae. According to the manufacturing process of separators, a viscoplastic model is used to describe the mechanical behavior of lamellae while a strengthened viscoplastic model is utilized to mimic the mechanical response of fibers. The finite element analyses underscore the dominant role of orientated fibers in determining anisotropic mechanical properties. Furthermore, we explore the effects of manufacturing and geometry parameters on the separator's anisotropic mechanical behavior. This research provides valuable insights for optimizing manufacturing parameters and enhancing safety measures for lithium-ion batteries.

Enabling tailored microstructures by hybrid directed energy deposition processing of a nickel-based superalloy

The technological advances in additive manufacturing, particularly laser based directed energy deposition (DED), revolutionized the production of complex metal components. Despite this progress, the oriented heat flux and several reheating thermal cycles can induce a strongly textured microstructure, which induces an anisotropic mechanical behavior. In addition, considerable residual stresses typically require additional post-processing. Therefore, hybrid process chains for additive manufacturing (AM) are being developed, which aim at integrating conventional post-processing into the AM process. However, a detailed investigation of thermal and mechanical effects of such hybrid processes on the mechanical properties and their interrelation is lacking. In an experimental study, we explore the integration of thermal and mechanical processing steps within the DED process chain to locally tailor microstructures and mechanical properties. Through electron backscatter diffraction measurements, we demonstrate significant microstructural changes of DED-manufactured nickel-based superalloy samples using deep rolling and laser heat treatment. A mechanical surface deformation induces microstructural misorientation leading to an increase in hardness down to substantial depth of several hundred micrometers. Additionally, the targeted management of heat input during laser heat treatment results in different grain morphologies and sizes, affecting average microhardness within a significant depth. The results demonstrate the potential for microstructural tailoring using hybrid AM process chains, while a substantial sensitivity of the microstructure to thermal and mechanical load emphasizes the importance of a precise process control. This work provides an understanding of the process-microstructure-property relationship required for developing new process pathways in hybrid AM that integrate thermal and mechanical processes into DED manufacturing.

The Anisotropic Mechanical and Tribological Behaviors of Additively Manufactured (Material Extrusion) Implant-Grade Polyether Ether Ketone (PEEK)

In this study, we investigated the mechanical and tribological properties of the layer-by-layer structure of additively manufactured implant-grade Polyether Ether Ketone (PEEK) through the Material Extrusion (ME) process as a potential substitute for artificial joints. The effective elasticity modulus of the anisotropic 3D-printed PEEK was determined to be 2.505 GPa along the vertical and horizontal build orientations. The lubricated friction and wear performance were assessed using a pin-on-disk test under various loads, including 14, 30, 50, and 70 N, with a sliding speed of 50 mm/s over a total distance of 1 km at 37 °C. The contact parameters between the hemispherical steel pin and 3D-printed PEEK disks, involving contact pressures over the circle of contact, were observed to increase as the load increased. The results indicated that the wear coefficient exhibited a rise from 1.418 × 10−5 to 2.089 × 10−1 as the applied loads increased, signaling a shift from mild to severe wear regimes. Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) as a lubricant exhibited a mixed mechanism, ascertained through the Stribeck curve, as well as a minimum fluid film thickness of 1.346 nm under an isoviscous–elastic regime, as calculated by the maximum load. Moreover, the mechanism governing wear during sliding, influenced by both normal axial and shear loads, primarily involved adhesion.

First-principles calculations to investigate thermodynamic, mechanical and electronic properties of Penta-C72 carbon under pressure effect

The current work explores the mechanical characteristics, band structure modifications, elastic constant changes, and anisotropy of the carbon allotrope Penta-C72 at high pressure. First-principles simulations were used to analyse the structural features, stability, electronic, mechanical, and thermodynamic properties of Penta-C72, a metastable sp3 -bonded structure made up of carbon pentagons joined by bridge-like connections. The structural and dynamical stability of Penta-C72 under high pressure is confirmed using formation energy, phonon band maps, and thermodynamic properties. Besides, Born's mechanical stability criterion is fulfilled based on the elastic constants of Penta-C72, indicating its mechanical stability. Also, the anisotropic mechanical behaviour is shown by the material. Using the Reuss, Voigt, and Hill approximations, the elastic moduli under high pressure were computed, including bulk modulus (K), shear modulus (G), and Young's modulus (E). Besides, Penta-C72 exhibits a rise in anisotropy and moduli with increasing pressure. This investigation explores the changes in the band gap upon variation in the pressure. It is observed that there is a transition from semiconducting to metallic property above 10 GPa. Beyond 10 GPa, the material exhibits metallic behaviour. The study emphasizes that Penta-C72’s exceptional mechanical stability, directional anisotropy, and customisable electronic characteristics make it a strong contender for various engineering applications.

Effects of Anisotropic Mechanical Behavior on Nominal Moment Capability of 3D Printed Concrete Beam with Reinforcement

In this study, 3D-printed reinforced concrete beams were tested for flexural performance and compared with the analytical model based on the material test results. Two cementitious mixes (PSU and GCT) were designed for concrete printing and were mechanically tested and compared. Anisotropies in the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of printed concrete were observed, applied to the analytical prediction of flexural bending behavior, and validated by actual test results. Significant differences between analytical predictions and experimental tests of the bending behaviors of the printed concrete beams were observed. Furthermore, higher compressive strengths and moduli of elasticity were observed when the loading direction was perpendicular to the printed layers or with the PSU mix. The effect of anisotropic mechanical properties on a reinforced beam was compared to the flexural bending tests for both mixes. The analytical model based on the material test results was compared to the flexural bending test results. The significant errors in the prediction of printed concrete’s structural performance, from 10% to 50%, suggest that factors other than reduced compressive strengths may influence the structural behaviors of printed concrete beams.

Atomistic investigation on the anisotropic elastic and plastic responses of nanotwinned metals

Introducing nanotwins into materials is one of the important strengthening methods to achieve the synergistic improvement of strength and ductility. The anisotropic mechanical behaviors of nanotwinned materials have been widely studied by experimental and computational methods. The dominant deformation mechanisms about dislocation slippages can be effectively switched among three modes, and controlled by twin spacing and the angle between twin boundaries (TBs) orientation and loading direction. Particularly, most of previous researches mainly focused on the deformation mechanisms during the plastic flow stage and researchers paid little attention on the anisotropic characteristics of TBs at the elastic stage which are also essential to manufacture the high-performance materials. Therefore, this study is aiming to systematically investigate the anisotropic effect of TBs both at the elastic and plastic stages within the single crystalline or polycrystalline systems by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. It is revealed that, when the loading direction is parallel to twin planes, the introduction of TBs in single crystalline models will significantly affect the characteristics of atomic bond rotation and elongation dominated elastic deformation, which can alter the Poisson’s ratio of materials, generate elastic-softening behavior and inhomogeneous elastic deformation. At the plastic flow stage, the deformation mechanism transforms from trans-twin dislocation slippage into the coexistence of Hard Mode I and threading dislocation slippage (Hard Mode II) when the loading direction changes from parallel to perpendicular direction with respect to TBs. Moreover, the dislocation segments at the conjunction of trans-twin dislocation play a momentous role in enhancing material strength. The results for polycrystalline models are consistent with that of single crystalline ones. These findings are expected to be beneficial for the development of high-performance nanostructured materials for structural and functional applications by strain engineering and defect regulation.

Molecular dynamics modelling of the stress–strain response of [formula omitted]-sheet nanocrystals

Molecular dynamics simulations were conducted on two model antiparallel β-sheet crystallites [GA]n and [GAS]n to study deformation in chain, sheet stacking, and hydrogen bonding directions under uniaxial loading. In chain direction, both models were mechanically stable, even beyond the 570 K amorphousation temperature of silk fiber; however, [GA]n model displayed higher yield strain, stress, elastic modulus, and resilience than [GAS]n. In transverse directions, they had similar stress–strain behavior and demonstrated significant anisotropic mechanical behavior. Hence, inclusion of an amino acid with a rich side chain group extending between β-sheets reduces the stiffness of crystallite in chain direction. Serine and alanine residues maintained existing H-bonds and established new ones during stretching in chain direction and shrinking in transverse directions which affected the mechanical response near the yield point. Comparison between β-sheet crystallite and PPTA (Kevlar) showed that the mechanical performance of these crystal polymers were very similar in chain direction, but contrarily β-sheet crystallite had higher stiffness in H-bonding and sheet stacking directions than PPTA. This study may provide a guideline in designing of polyaminoacid based biocompatible materials with superior mechanical performance.

A Detailed First‐Principles Study of the Structural, Elastic, Thermomechanical, and Optoelectronic Properties of Binary Rare‐Earth Tritelluride NdTe3

AbstractRare‐earth tritellurides (RTe3) are popular for their charge density wave (CDW) phase, magnetotransport properties, and pressure‐induced superconducting state among other features. In this literature, Density functional theory is exploited to study various properties of NdTe3. The calculated elastic and thermomechanical parameters, which are hitherto untouched for any RTe3, uncover soft, ductile, highly machinable, and damage‐tolerant characteristics, as well as highly anisotropic mechanical behavior of this layered compound. Its thermomechanical properties make it a prospective thermal barrier coating material. Band structure, density of states, Fermi surfaces, and various optical functions of the material are reported. The band structure demonstrates highly directional metallic nature. The highly dispersive bands indicate very low effective charge carrier mass for the in‐plane directions. The Fermi surfaces display symmetric pockets, including signs of nesting, bilayer splitting among others, corroborating previous works. The optical spectra expose high reflectivity across the visible region, while absorption is high in the ultraviolet region. Two plasma frequencies are noticed in the optical loss function. The optical conductivity, reflectivity, and absorption reaffirm its metallic properties. The electronic band structure manifests evidence of CDW phase in the ground state.

Ab-Initio calculations on physical properties of Dirac semimetal AMgBi (A=K, Rb, Cs)

This study presents a comprehensive first-principles investigation of the structural, mechanical, vibrational, thermodynamic and electronic properties of AMgBi (A = K, Rb, Cs) compounds using Density Functional Theory. Also, the effect of substituting alkali atoms on the physical properties has been discussed. The tetragonal PbClF-type structure has been confirmed by the analysis and the results revealed good agreement between calculated and experimental lattice parameters for KMgBi. The mechanical properties have been investigated for the first time for RbMgBi and CsMgBi. The mechanical stability of the materials in the ground state has been confirmed through the use of obtained elastic constants. Furthermore, derived parameters from elastic constants such as bulk modulus, shear modulus, and Poisson's ratio indicated that the materials are brittle and exhibited anisotropic mechanical behavior due to their layered structure. This study conducts a detailed analysis of phonon modes, explores their connections to thermal and elastic properties, visualizes the movements of phonon modes at the gamma point, determines Born effective charges, and discusses LO/TO splitting, which is for the first time for RbMgBi and CsMgBi. Phonon dispersion calculations confirmed the dynamical stability of the compounds and revealed the presence of phonon band gaps, supporting their quasi-two-dimensional nature. Investigation of thermodynamic properties using the quasi-harmonic approximation has shown the temperature dependence of internal energy, Helmholtz free energy, specific heat, and entropy for the first time for all compounds. The materials exhibited relatively low thermal conductivity, following the order KMgBi > RbMgBi > CsMgBi. The calculated Grüneisen parameter values were found to be 1.42, 1.44, and 1.53 for KMgBi, RbMgBi, and CsMgBi, respectively, suggesting relatively weak anharmonicity within the materials.

Research Paper on Analytical Investigation of the Effect of 3d Printing Process Parameters on Anisotropic Mechanical Behaviour of Additively Constructed Concrete

This research identifies key challenges in additively constructed concrete, including the need for understanding the scalability of mechanical behaviour from small to large structures, addressing variability in material properties, and predicting failure mechanisms. It highlights the need for improved finite element modelling for accurate 3DCP simulation, and further investigation into concrete foundation interactions and initial imperfections. The study acknowledges difficulties in simulating complex shapes and calls for refinement of the numerical model for better predictive accuracy. It also emphasizes the need to understand long-term behaviour, durability, and the impact of the 3DCP process on microstructural morphology and mechanical properties. The influence of pores and time gaps between layers on the overall capacity of the specimen, and the development of a model considering different properties of 3D concrete material are also identified as areas for future research.

Directional fracture patterns of excavated jointed rock mass within rough discrete fractures

The influence of the fractures on the anisotropic mechanical behavior of excavated fractured rock mass is important for the stability of rock tunnels. Rough joints were generated using fractal principles, and the Monte Carlo method was employed to create joint network faces. Biaxial compression numerical simulations were conducted using the discrete element method to analyze the behavior of the rock mass containing these networks. Quantitative analysis was carried out to evaluate the strength variability and total number of cracks in the jointed rock mass. A linear regression analysis was conducted to establish the relationship between rock strength and excavation size. The findings demonstrate significant disparities between the linear and fractal models regarding rock damage mode, stress–strain curves, and crack evolution patterns. Tensile rupture and local shear damage were found to be the primary fracture modes for the fractured rock tunnels, forming a V-shaped damage zone within the central tunnel. The shape of this zone was influenced by fracture direction and excavation ratio. Excavation at the center of the rock mass substantially impacted the variability of rock strength and the occurrence of internal cracks. An increase in the slope ratio led to a greater variability of rock mass strength, transitioning from nearly isotropic to weakly anisotropic behavior. The total number of cracks exhibited a W-shaped trend, initially increasing and later decreasing as the slope ratio decreased. Additionally, a clear linear correlation was observed between rock strength and excavation ratio at the center of the rock mass.

Experimental Characterization of Anisotropic Mechanical Behaviour and Failure Mechanisms of Hardened Printed Concrete.

Extrusion-based printing of cementitious materials represents an innovative technology in civil engineering. The additive manufacturing process significantly influences the material properties in the hardened state, leading to anisotropic behaviour in terms of stiffness and strength compared to conventionally cast concrete. This experimental study aims to deepen the understanding of the mechanical behaviour of hardened printed concrete. Beam-like specimens with varying printing patterns, loading orientations and lengths are investigated within three-point bending tests (3PBT) and uniaxial compression tests (UCT). Homogenized material parameters such as Young's modulus, compressive and flexural tensile strength and density are statistically evaluated using optically measured displacement and strain fields on the specimen surface. The qualitative and quantitative results demonstrate a strong dependency of material properties and failure mechanisms on the printing pattern. The interfilamental and interlayer areas with weak adhesion are identified as the main reason for anisotropy.

Three-dimensional-printed femoral diaphysis for biomechanical testing-Optimization and validation.

Polylactic acid (PLA) models of normal human femoral diaphyses were designed using three-dimensional (3D) printing technology to create inexpensive, accessible, and reproducible specimens for flexural biomechanical studies. These models were subjected to three-point bending and their response to loading was characterized. The anisotropic mechanical behavior of the 3D-printed femurs and the influence of printing orientations, infill density, wall layers, resolution, and other printing parameters were explored to develop a design space. The objective of the design space was set to emulate the flexural biomechanical response of the normal human femur bones. Results show the 3D-printed PLA diaphyseal femurs with 5% infill density, two-four wall layers, and a resolution of 200 µm resulted in a flexural strength of 184.8 ± 8.18 MPa. Models with 20% infill density and six wall layers resulted in a flexural modulus of 18.54 ± 0.543 GPa. These results emulate the biomechanical response of the normal human femur, as determined by historical target values derived from prior cadaveric and 3D printing data. With further research, inclusive of modeling the proximal and distal femur and more comprehensive biomechanical testing, 3D-printed femurs may ultimately serve as a cheap, accessible biomechanical resource for surgeons and researchers.