Anionic Polypeptide Research Articles

Genetically Engineered Supercharged Polypeptide Fluids: Fast and Persistent Self‐Ordering Induced by Touch

AbstractMechanically induced disorder–order transitions have been studied in fluid surfactant solutions or polymer thermotropic liquid crystals. However, isothermally induced ordered phases do not persist after cessation of shear, which limits their technological applicability. Moreover, no such stimuli‐responsive materials involving biomacromolecules have been reported although biopolymer liquids are gaining a lot of attention. A biological fluid system is introduced in which anionic polypeptides are complexed with cationic surfactants. The resulting fluids exhibited very sensitive isotropic–nematic transition triggered by shear. The formed liquid crystal was preserved after cessation of mechanical stimulus. Self‐ordering behavior of the material was achieved through water flow and finger pressing. The latter mechanical induction resulted in the formation of complex pattern that can be read out by birefringence, allowing the recording of fingerprint information.

Anionic polypeptide poly(γ-glutamic acid)-functionalized magnetic Fe3O4-GO-(o-MWCNTs) hybrid nanocomposite for high-efficiency removal of Cd(II), Cu(II) and Ni(II) heavy metal ions

A novel hybrid adsorbent, anionic polypeptide poly(γ-glutamic acid)—(γ-PGA) functionalized magnetic Fe3O4-GO-(o-MWCNTs) hybrid nanocomposite was successfully prepared via a simple one-pot reaction. The as-prepared γ-PGA-Fe3O4-GO-(o-MWCNTs) composites were characterized via SEM, TEM, FTIR, XRD, TGA, AFM, zeta potential analysis and magnetic properties analysis. The results indicate that the addition of o-MWCNTs solves the serious aggregation problem of GO and thus makes the GO exposed more grafted sites bonded to large amount of γ-PGA molecule chains. The prepared γ-PGA-Fe3O4-GO-(o-MWCNTs) composites not only have a higher specific surface area to offer abundant surface adsorption sites, but also can be separated more easily from solution systems. Furthermore, the adsorption tests of the γ-PGA-Fe3O4-GO-(o-MWCNTs) were analyzed in Cd(II), Cu(II) and Ni(II) solutions at various pH values, contact time, and initial concentrations of ions. This work indicates that the hybrid adsorbent can be the suitable absorbent materials for various types of heavy metal ions pollution removal and exhibit higher adsorbing capacities in the pH range of 2–10. Its maximum removal capacity calculated by Langmuir model under the optimal conditions toward Cd(II), Cu(II) and Ni(II) is 625.00, 574.71 and 384.62 mg/g, respectively. The adsorption process was well described by the pseudo-second-order kinetics model and the Langmuir isotherm model, respectively. The adsorption mechanism may involve characteristic coordination bonding and electrostatic attraction between γ-PGA-Fe3O4-GO-(o-MWCNTs) and metal ions. Additionally, anionic polypeptide γ-PGA-Fe3O4-GO-(o-MWCNTs) composite can be easily regenerated and recycled at least for three adsorption–desorption recycles. The unique characteristics render the composite highly promising as an advanced adsorbent material for the removal of heavy metal ions.

Systemic siRNA delivery to tumors by cell-penetrating α-helical polypeptide-based metastable nanoparticles.

Systemic, non-viral siRNA delivery for cancer treatment is mainly achieved via condensation by cationic materials (e.g., lipids and cationic polymers), which nevertheless, suffers from poor serum stability, non-specific tissue interaction, and unsatisfactory membrane activity against efficient in vivo gene knockdown. Here, we report the design of a metastable, cancer-targeting siRNA delivery system based on two functional polymers, PVBLG-8, a cationic, helical cell-penetrating polypeptide, and poly(l-glutamic acid) (PLG), an anionic random-coiled polypeptide. PVBLG-8 with rigid, linear structure showed weak siRNA condensation capability, and PLG with flexible chains was incorporated as a stabilizer which provided sufficient molecular entanglement with PVBLG-8 to encapsulate the siRNA within the polymeric network. The obtained PVBLG-8/siRNA/PLG nanoparticles (PSP NPs) with positive charges were sequentially coated with additional amount of PLG, which reversed the surface charge from positive to negative to yield the metastable PVBLG-8/siRNA/PLG@PLG (PSPP) NPs. The PSPP NPs featured desired serum stability during circulation to enhance tumor accumulation via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Upon acidification in the tumor extracellular microenvironment and intracellular endosomes, the partial protonation of PLG on PSPP NPs surface would lead to dissociation of PLG coating from NPs, exposure of the highly membrane-active PVBLG-8, and surface charge reversal from negative to positive, which subsequently promoted tumor penetration, selective cancer cell internalization, and efficient endolysosomal escape. When siRNA against epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) was encapsulated, the PSPP NPs showed excellent tumor penetration capability, tumor cell uptake level, EGFR silencing efficiency, and tumor growth inhibition efficacy in U-87 MG glioblastoma tumor spheroids in vitro and in xenograft tumor-bearing mice in vivo, outperforming the PSP NPs and several commercial reagents such as Lipofectamine 2000 and poly(l-lysine) (PLL). This study therefore demonstrates a facile and unique design approach of metastable and charge reversal NPs, which overcomes multiple biological barriers against systemic siRNA delivery toward anti-cancer treatment.

Evaluation of para -Aminosalicylic Acid as a Substrate of Multiple Solute Carrier Uptake Transporters and Possible Drug Interactions with Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs In Vitro

para-Aminosalicylic acid (PAS) is a second-line antituberculosis drug that has been used to treat multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis for more than 60 years. Renal secretion and glomerular filtration are the major pathways for the elimination of PAS. We comprehensively studied PAS transport by using cell lines that overexpressed various transporters and found that PAS acts as a novel substrate of an organic anionic polypeptide (OATP1B1), organic cationic transporters (OCT1 and OCT2), and organic anion transporters (OAT1 and OAT3) but is not a substrate of any ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. Net PAS uptake was measured, and the transport affinities (Km values) for OATP1B1, OCT1, OCT2, OAT1, and OAT3 were found to be 50.0, 20.3, 28.7, 78.1, and 100.1 μM, respectively. The net uptake rates suggested that renal OAT1 and OAT3 play relatively major roles in PAS elimination. The representative inhibitors rifampin for OATP1B1, probenecid for OAT1 and OAT3, and verapamil for OCT1 and OCT2 greatly inhibited PAS uptake, suggesting that PAS is dependent on multiple transporters for uptake. We also evaluated nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), and metformin for the inhibition of PAS uptake via these transporters. Half-maximal (50%) inhibitory concentrations (IC50s) were kinetically determined and used to predict the drug-drug interactions (DDIs) affecting these transporters' activity toward PAS. We found that rifampin, probenecid, ibuprofen, naproxen, cimetidine, and quinidine each exhibited a significant potential for in vivo DDIs with PAS. In this study, PAS was found to be a novel substrate of several transporters, and drugs that inhibit these transporters can reduce PAS elimination.

Photothermal-modulated drug delivery and magnetic relaxation based on collagen/poly(γ-glutamic acid) hydrogel.

Injectable and stimuli-responsive hydrogels have attracted attention in molecular imaging and drug delivery because encapsulated diagnostic or therapeutic components in the hydrogel can be used to image or change the microenvironment of the injection site by controlling various stimuli such as enzymes, temperature, pH, and photonic energy. In this study, we developed a novel injectable and photoresponsive composite hydrogel composed of anticancer drugs, imaging contrast agents, bio-derived collagen, and multifaceted anionic polypeptide, poly (γ-glutamic acid) (γ-PGA). By the introduction of γ-PGA, the intrinsic temperature-dependent phase transition behavior of collagen was modified to a low viscous sol state at room temperature and nonflowing gel state around body temperature. The modified temperature-dependent phase transition behavior of collagen/γ-PGA hydrogels was also evaluated after loading of near-infrared (NIR) fluorophore, indocyanine green (ICG), which could transform absorbed NIR photonic energy into thermal energy. By taking advantage of the abundant carboxylate groups in γ-PGA, cationic-charged doxorubicin (Dox) and hydrophobic MnFe2O4 magnetic nanoparticles were also incorporated successfully into the collagen/γ-PGA hydrogels. By illumination of NIR light on the collagen/γ-PGA/Dox/ICG/MnFe2O4 hydrogels, the release kinetics of Dox and magnetic relaxation of MnFe2O4 nanoparticles could be modulated. The experimental results suggest that the novel injectable and NIR-responsive collagen/γ-PGA hydrogels developed in this study can be used as a theranostic platform after loading of various molecular imaging probes and therapeutic components.

In Situ Strategy to Encapsulate Antibiotics in a Bioinspired CaCO3 Structure Enabling pH-Sensitive Drug Release Apt for Therapeutic and Imaging Applications.

Herein we demonstrate a bioinspired method involving macromolecular assembly of anionic polypeptide with cationic peptide-oligomer that allows for in situ encapsulation of antibiotics like tetracycline in CaCO3 microstructure. In a single step one-pot process, the encapsulation of the drug occurs under desirable environmentally benign conditions resulting in drug loaded CaCO3 microspheres. While this tetracycline-loaded sample exhibits pH dependent in vitro drug-release profile and excellent antibacterial activity, the encapsulated drug or the dye-conjugated peptide emits fluorescence suitable for optical imaging and detection, thereby making it a multitasking material. The efficacy of tetracycline loaded calcium carbonate microspheres as pH dependent drug delivery vehicles is further substantiated by performing cell viability experiments using normal and cancer cell lines (in vitro). Interestingly, the pH-dependent drug release enables selective cytotoxicity toward cancer cell lines as compared to the normal cells, thus having the potential for further development of therapeutic applications.

Characterization of 22 Antituberculosis Drugs for Inhibitory Interaction Potential on Organic Anionic Transporter Polypeptide (OATP)-Mediated Uptake.

We investigated the inhibitory interaction potential of 22 currently marketed antituberculosis (TB) drugs on organic anion-transporting polypeptide 1B1 (OATP1B1)-, OATP2B1-, and OATP1B3-mediated uptake using in vitro Xenopus oocytes and HEK cells. Rifabutin, ethambutol, amoxicillin, linezolid, p-amino salicylic acid, and rifapentine exhibited mild to moderate inhibitory effects on OATP-mediated uptake of estrone-3 sulfate, estradiol 17β-d-glucuronide, and rosuvastatin. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of rifabutin, amoxicillin, ethambutol, p-amino salicylic acid, and linezolid were 35.4, 36.2, 57.6, 72.6, and 65.9 μM, respectively, for uptake mediated by organic anionic transporter polypeptide 1B1 (OATP1B1) and 28.8, 28.9, 53.9, 31.5, and 61.0 μM, respectively, for uptake mediated by organic anionic transporter polypeptide 1B3 (OATP1B3). Streptomycin and linezolid showed greater inhibition of organic anionic transporter polypeptide 2B1 (OATP2B1)-mediated uptake, with IC50 values of 33.2 and 35.6 μM, respectively, along with mild inhibition of other drugs. Furthermore, rifabutin, amoxicillin, and rifapentine significantly inhibited OATP1B1-mediated rosuvastatin uptake, with IC50 values of 12.3, 13.0, and 11.0 μM, respectively, which showed a similar profile to estrone-3 sulfate uptake. The calculated R values ([I]u inlet,max/Ki, where [I]u inlet,max represents the maximum estimated inhibitor concentration inlet to the liver and Ki is the inhibition constant) as the drug-drug interaction (DDI) indexes of PAS, ethambutol, and amoxicillin were 26.1, 6.5, and 4.3 for OATP1B1 and 52.0, 8.0, and 4.6 for OATP1B3, and those for streptomycin, amikacin, and linezolid were 5.0, 4.2, and 4.4 for OATP2B1, respectively, suggesting a higher possibility of in vivo DDIs. This study is the first comprehensive report to show the novel inhibitory potential of 22 marketed anti-TB drugs on OATP-mediated uptake, providing evidence for future in vivo clinical DDI studies.

Coassemblies of the Anionic Polypeptide γ-PGA and Cationic β-Sheet Peptides for Drug Delivery to Mitochondria.

The effectiveness of a drug may be highly dependent on its delivery to its target organ and even to specific intracellular organelles. In this study we developed nanoparticles (NPs) composed of the anionic polypeptide poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA), and a designed amphiphilic and cationic β-sheet peptide (PFK), which tends to form fibril bilayer assemblies. These peptide assemblies generate hydrophobic niches within the NPs, which enhance the NPs' capacity to deliver amphiphilic drugs. NPs created by coassembly of γ-PGA and PFK, and further coated with PFK, had a positive zeta-potential and were attracted to mitochondria. When applied to the human osteosarcoma cell line Saos2, the NP-encapsulated lonidamin drug proved to be 300 times more cytotoxic than the free drug.

Doxorubicin-loaded polypeptide nanorods based on electrostatic interactions for cancer therapy

An amphiphilic anionic polypeptide, methoxypolyethylene glycol–poly (glutamic acid) (mPEG–PGA), was synthesized, characterized and evaluated as a nanocarrier for the cationic anticancer drug doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX·HCl). The complex self-assembled into nanorods in aqueous solutions via electrostatic interactions and exhibited a superior drug loading content (50.8%) and drug loading efficiency (90.2%). The average major axis of the drug-loaded nanorods was approximately 300nm, as determined by transmission electron microscopy. An in vitro release assay showed that drug-loaded nanorods exhibited pH-sensitivity and sustained release. Haemolysis assays demonstrated that the polypeptide was haemocompatible, and the polypeptide drug carrier significantly reduced the haemolysis ratio of DOX·HCl. The pharmacokinetics study showed that DOX-loaded nanorods significantly prolonged the resident time in blood. An in vitro cytotoxicity study and cellular uptake assays demonstrated that the DOX-loaded nanorods resulted in higher cell proliferation inhibition and a higher level of tumour cell uptake in A549 cells than with free DOX·HCl. The prolonged circulation and enhanced antitumor efficacy of DOX-loaded nanorods shows promise for efficient cancer chemotherapy.

Biodegradable containers composed of anionic liposomes and cationic polypeptide vesicles

An electrostatic complexation of liposomes, composed of mixture of anionic and zwitterionic lipids, with bilayer vesicles composed of cationic poly(l-lysine)-b-poly(l-leucine) polypeptides has been investigated.

SLCO1B1 Polymorphism is not associated with Risk of Statin-Induced Myalgia/Myopathy in a Czech Population

BackgroundGene SLCO1B1, encoding solute organic anionic transport polypeptide OATP1B1, belongs to the group of candidates potentially influencing statin treatment safety. OATP1B1 regulates (not only) the hepatic uptake of statins. Its genetic variation was described as an important predictor of statin-associated myopathy in a cohort of patients treated with a maximum dose of simvastatin. However, the impact of SLCO1B1 gene polymorphism on this risk in patients treated with other statins or lower doses of simvastatin needs to be assessed. Therefore, we performed the present study.Material/MethodsSLCO1B1 tagging rs4363657 polymorphism was analyzed in 2 groups of patients with dyslipidemia (treated with simvastatin or atorvastatin, 10 or 20 mg per day), subgroup with statin-induced myalgia (N=286), and subgroup (N=707) without myalgia/myopathy, and in 2301 population controls without lipid-lowering treatment.ResultsFrequency of the individual genotypes in patients with myalgia/myopathy (TT=62.3%, CT=34.5%, CC=2.8%) did not significantly differ (both P values over 0.19) from that in patients without muscle symptoms (TT=61.4%, CT=32.9%, CC=5.7%) or from the population controls (TT=63.9%, CT=32.5%, CC=3.6%). Null results were also obtained for the dominant and recessive models of the analysis.ConclusionsIn Czech patients treated with low statin doses, there is no association between SLCO1B1 gene polymorphism and risk of myalgia/myopathy.

Enhanced production of poly-γ-glutamic acid by a newly-isolated Bacillus subtilis.

Application of poly-gamma-glutamic acid (γ-PGA), an unusual macromolecular anionic polypeptide, is limited due to the high cost associated with its low productivity. Screening bacterial strains to find a more efficient producer is one approach to overcome this limitation. Strain MJ80 was isolated as a γ-PGA producer among 1,500 bacterial colonies obtained from soil samples. It was identified as Bacillus subtilis, based on the biochemical and morphological properties and 16S rDNA gene sequencing. It produced γ-PGA from both glutamic acid and soybean powder, identifying it as a facultative glutamic acid-metabolizing bacterium. After optimization of its culture conditions, B. subtilis MJ80 showed γ-PGA productivity of 75.5 and 68.7g/l in 3 and 300l jar fermenters for 3days cultivation, respectively, the highest productivity reported to date, suggesting MJ80 to be a promising strain for γ-PGA production.

Anionic fibroin-derived polypeptides accelerate MSC osteoblastic differentiation in a three-dimensional osteoid-like dense collagen niche.

Incorporation of anionic fibroin derived polypeptides into dense collagen gels provided a dynamic, three-dimensional, tissue-equivalent matrix together with biochemical cues that resembled the role of the bone morphogenic growth factors commonly used to promote osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells.

The antiviral activity of poly-γ-glutamic acid, a polypeptide secreted by Bacillus sp., through induction of CD14-dependent type I interferon responses

Poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA) is an anionic polypeptide secreted by Bacillus sp. that has been shown to activate immune cells through interactions with toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). However, its ability to induce the type I interferon (IFN) response has not yet been characterized. Here, we demonstrate that γ-PGA induces type I IFN signaling pathway via the TLR4 signaling pathway. The induction required both myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD2) and the pattern-recognition receptor CD14, which are two TLR4-associated accessory proteins. The γ-PGA with high molecular weights (2000 and 5000 kDa) was able to activate the subsequent signals through TLR4/MD2 to result in dimerization of IRF-3, a transcription factor required for IFN gene expression, leading to increases in mRNA levels of the type I IFN-response genes, 2′–5′ OAS and ISG56. Moreover, γ-PGA (2000 kDa) displayed an antiviral activity against SARS coronavirus and hepatitis C virus. Our results identify high-molecular weight γ-PGA as a TLR4 ligand and demonstrate that γ-PGA requires both CD14 and MD2 for the activation of type I IFN responses. Our results suggest that the microbial biopolymer γ-PGA may have therapeutic potential against a broad range of viruses sensitive to type I IFNs.

Klebsiella pneumoniae Peptidoglycan-Associated Lipoprotein and Murein Lipoprotein Contribute to Serum Resistance, Antiphagocytosis, and Proinflammatory Cytokine Stimulation

Peptidoglycan-associated lipoprotein (Pal), murein lipoprotein (LppA), and outer membrane protein A (OmpA) are dominant outer membrane proteins (OMPs) that are released by gram-negative bacteria during sepsis. OMPs are implicated in the maintenance of cell envelope integrity. Here, we characterize the roles of these OMPs in pathogenesis during bacteremia caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae. pal-, lppA-, and ompA-deficient K. pneumoniae strains were constructed using an unmarked deletion method. Serum sensitivity, antiphagocytosis activity, outer membrane permeability, and sensitivity to anionic detergents and antimicrobial polypeptides were determined for these OMP gene deletion mutants. The ability of these OMP gene deletion mutants to induce immune responses was compared with that of the wild-type strain in a bacteremic mouse model. Klebsiella pneumoniae strains deleted for pal or lppA exhibited reduced protection from serum killing and phagocytosis; perturbation to the outer membrane permeability barrier and hypersensitivity to bile salts and sodium dodecyl sulfate. The strain mutated for lppA had reduced ability to activate Toll-like receptor 4. Immunization of mice with the pal or lppA mutant provided protection against infection by the wild-type strain. Our findings indicate that K. pneumoniae Pal and LppA proteins are important in the maintenance of cell integrity, contribute to virulence, and could be used as attenuated vaccines.

Polypeptide/Doxorubicin Hydrochloride Polymersomes Prepared Through Organic Solvent-free Technique as a Smart Drug Delivery Platform

Rapid and efficient side-chain functionalization of polypeptide with neighboring carboxylgroups is achieved via the combination of ring-opening polymerization and subsequent thiol-yne click chemistry. The spontaneous formation of polymersomes with uniform size is found to occur in aqueous medium via electrostatic interaction between the anionic polypeptide and cationic doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX·HCl). The polymersomes are taken up by A549 cells via endocytosis, with a slightly lower cytotoxicity compared with free DOX ·HCl. Moreover, the drug-loaded polymersomes exhibit the enhanced therapeutic efficacy, increase apoptosis in tumor tissues, and reduce systemic toxicity in nude mice bearing A549 lung cancer xenograft, in comparison with free DOX ·HCl.

Functional Divergence in Shrimp Anti-Lipopolysaccharide Factors (ALFs): From Recognition of Cell Wall Components to Antimicrobial Activity

Antilipopolysaccharide factors (ALFs) have been described as highly cationic polypeptides with a broad spectrum of potent antimicrobial activities. In addition, ALFs have been shown to recognize LPS, a major component of the Gram-negative bacteria cell wall, through conserved amino acid residues exposed in the four-stranded β-sheet of their three dimensional structure. In penaeid shrimp, ALFs form a diverse family of antimicrobial peptides composed by three main variants, classified as ALF Groups A to C. Here, we identified a novel group of ALFs in shrimp (Group D ALFs), which corresponds to anionic polypeptides in which many residues of the LPS binding site are lacking. Both Group B (cationic) and Group D (anionic) shrimp ALFs were produced in a heterologous expression system. Group D ALFs were found to have impaired LPS-binding activities and only limited antimicrobial activity compared to Group B ALFs. Interestingly, all four ALF groups were shown to be simultaneously expressed in an individual shrimp and to follow different patterns of gene expression in response to a microbial infection. Group B was by far the more expressed of the ALF genes. From our results, nucleotide sequence variations in shrimp ALFs result in functional divergence, with significant differences in LPS-binding and antimicrobial activities. To our knowledge, this is the first functional characterization of the sequence diversity found in the ALF family.

Biomimetic mineralization of collagen via an enzyme-aided PILP process

The development of bone-like collagen-hydroxyapatite composites is highly desirable because bone has outstanding mechanical properties and resorptive potential, and a combination of these characteristics could ultimately lead to a load-bearing and bioresorbable bone substitute. Our prior work has shown that intrafibrillar mineralization of collagen can be achieved using a polymer-induced liquid-precursor (PILP) mineralization process. In our in vitro model system, polyaspartate is used to mimic the acidic non-collagenous proteins involved in bone formation. We have previously shown that the anionic polypeptide sequesters ions to induce an amorphous calcium phosphate precursor, and we have put forth the hypothesis that the early-stage precursor is highly hydrated, enabling fluidic droplets to be drawn into the gaps and grooves of collagen fibrils by capillary action. Here, we further our biomimetic approach by using alkaline phosphatase to provide a slow release of inorganic phosphate ions from a phosphate ester, mimicking the biochemical processes of ion regulation found in natural bone formation. The collagen-hydroxyapatite composites were characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and selected area electron diffraction (SAED), which show that nanocrystals of hydroxyapatite are intrafibrillar and [0 0 1] oriented along the collagen fibril axis. With repeated mineralization steps, the fibrils become cemented together with a non-descript extrafibrillar mineral coating. Although the degree of intrafibrillar mineralization was not as high as our usual method, we believe that with further optimization this enzyme-aided PILP process could provide a closer mimic to the biochemical processes involved in bone formation, and serve as a useful in vitro model system for studying the mechanisms involved in bone formation.

Local Water Dynamics in Coacervated Polyelectrolytes Monitored through Dynamic Nuclear Polarization-Enhanced 1H NMR

We present the first study of quantifying the diffusion coefficient of interfacial water on polyelectrolyte surfaces of systems fully dispersed in bulk water under ambient conditions. Such measurements were made possible through the implementation of a recently introduced Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (DNP) technique to selectively amplify the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) signal of hydration water that is interacting with specifically located spin labels on polyelectrolyte surfaces. The merit of this novel capability is demonstrated in this report through the measurement of solvent microvisosity on the surface of two types of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes, when freely dissolved versus when complexed to form a liquid-liquid colloidal phase called complex coacervates. These complex coacervates were formed through electrostatic complexation between the imidazole-based cationic homopolymer poly(N-vinylimidazole) (PVIm), and anionic polypeptide polyaspartate (PAsp) in the pH range of 4.5 - 6.0, under which conditions the coacervate droplets are highly fluidic yet densely packed with polyelectrolytes. We also investigated the rotational diffusion coefficients of the spin labels covalently bound to the polyelectrolyte chains for both PVIm and PAsp, showing a 5 fold change in the rotational correlation time as well as anisotropy parameter upon coacervation, which represents a surprisingly small decrease given the high polymer concentration inside the dense microdroplets. For both DNP and ESR experiments, the polymers were covalently tagged with stable nitroxide radical spin labels (∼1 wt %) to probe the local solvent and polymer segment dynamics. We found that the surface water diffusion coefficients near uncomplexed PVIm and PAsp at pH 8 differ, and are around D∼1.3×10(-9)m(2) / s. In contrast, inside the complex coacervate phase, the water diffusion coefficient in the immediate vicinity of either polyelectrolyte was D∼ 0.25×10(-9)m(2) / s, which is about an order of magnitude smaller than the bulk water self diffusion coefficient, and yet orders of magnitude greater than that of associated, bound, hydration water. This observation suggests the existence of measurable water inside complex coacervates with relatively high diffusion and exchange dynamics, implying that water moves in nanometer-scale pore spaces as opposed to being structurally bound or even absent. We infer from our observation that the PVIm and PAsp chains are undergoing roughly pairwise association, so that largely charge neutralized species compose the concentrated, yet fluidic and partially hydrated coacervate cores.

Direct Expression of Antimicrobial Peptides in an Intact Form by a Translationally Coupled Two-Cistron Expression System

We describe a novel prokaryotic expression system for the production of cationic antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). The method relies on a translationally coupled two-cistron system, in which the termination codon for the first cistron (which encodes the anionic polypeptide mIFc2, a derivative of human gamma interferon) overlaps with the initiation codon for the second cistron (which encodes a cationic AMP) in the sequence of 5'-TAATG-3'. By forming an insoluble complex with the AMP upon translation, the mIFc2 protein efficiently neutralized the toxicity of the coexpressed cationic AMP and minimized the sensitivity of AMP to proteolytic degradation in a host. The AMPs were retrieved from the insoluble inclusion bodies without any chemical or enzymatic cleavage step by simple cation-exchange chromatography. With our system, approximately 100 mg of various AMPs (buforin IIb, parasin I, and pexiganan) were obtained from 1 liter of Escherichia coli culture. Our expression system may represent a universal cost-effective solution for the mass production of intact AMPs in their natural forms.