Animal And Plant Health Inspection Service Research Articles

Use of slaughter condemnation data to detect cattle health events in near real-time

Use of slaughter condemnation data to detect cattle health events in near real-time

This Old Herbarium: APHIS Compliance and Renovation Planning

With the continuous evolution of permitting regulations the Department of Botany at the National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) in Washington D.C., invited an agent from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) to discuss requirements for obtaining import permits for plant specimens. This meeting lead to the planning of restructuring existing procedures, workflows and modifications to the physical workspaces within our facilities. It also prompted the collection management staff to be well versed in the current regulations. APHIS requires individuals applying for a permit to submit a Standard Operational Procedure document (SOP) of their facilities. The APHIS agent will review the sterile entry procedures in the SOP and determine if the facility qualifies. Before we drafted our final SOP, we researched SOPs from other APHIS compliant herbaria. Most of the facilities at NMNH, constructed in 1910 and 1965, predates climate control and pest management best practice standards. After meeting with the APHIS agent, we reevaluated our packing and unpacking procedures. It was apparent that the frontline to combat pests should be as close to the shipping office entry point as possible. The ideal room is our drying room located next to the shipping office. Other room renovations where specimen processing occurs will be discussed in detail. PowerPoint is a major tool that helped with the visualization of the renovations. However, modifying and renovating spaces within the museum is not an easy feat because of the large scale coordinating efforts within the institution. Beyond the physical changes, there has been unexpected changes as to the role of collection staff in the permitting process. The APHIS requirements have created new challenges. Collection management staff are now sources of information about what collectors need to know before applying for a permit. Collection staff must also know about the various tools available for answering collectors’ questions, such as being well versed in the USDA Phytosanitary export database (PExD). Overall, new restrictions and guild lines create unexpected changes for the overall form and function of collection management.

Selection of Syndromes and Algorithms for Monitoring Bovine Laboratory Test Data

ObjectiveStandardize selection of indicator data streams and corresponding alerting algorithms for syndromic, reportable disease, and confirmed diagnostic categories derived from veterinary laboratory test order data for bovines.IntroductionThe Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory is collaborating with epidemiologists of the US Dept. of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Center for Epidemiology and Animal Health (CEAH) to increase animal health surveillance capacity. CEAH monitors selected syndromic animal health indicators for stakeholder reporting. This project’s goal was to extend this capacity to bovine veterinary laboratory test accession data.MethodsIndicators for weekly monitoring were derived from bovine test records from the Colorado State University Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory System from 27 Jun 2010 - 29 May 2016. Selected indicator types were syndromic test orders, disease-specific orders, and disease-specific positive results. Indicators were adopted if APHIS epidemiologists considered them worth monitoring and if they were represented by at least 100 lab accessions.Ten syndromes were chosen for routine monitoring based on body systems, bovine-specific concerns (e.g. mastitis), and concepts to capture novel threats. Reportable diseases were chosen from the list published by the Colorado Dept. of Agriculture [1]. Based on APHIS concerns and test order frequencies, 4 diseases were chosen for weekly monitoring: Bluetongue, Brucellosis, Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease, and Paratuberculosis. To monitor positives, we considered both the number and the ratio of herds with at least one positive result for each disease. For included tests (excluding results quantified with antibody levels), we counted an accession as “positive” if the result field contained strings “positive”, “suspect”, or “detect” without negation terms. For weekly counts, we added the number of herds with any positives after deduplication. Diseases adopted for monitoring of positive results were Bovine Viral Diarrhea, Trichomoniasis, and Paratuberculosis.From experience and literature, we compared variants of 4 algorithm types, including: the C2 method of the CDC Early Aberration Reporting System, a CuSUM control chart with a sliding baseline, the temporal scan statistic Gscan applied to hospital infection counts, and the CDC Historical Limits method.We adapted a semisynthetic simulation approach for algorithm comparison in which authentic disease count data are used as baseline, and simulated signals are added to the background as detection targets. In discussions about specific diseases and veterinary testing practice, CEAH required sensitivity to one-week data spikes as well as effects of health threats with multi-week incubation periods and more gradual test ordering. For such gradual signals, we chose the lognormal signal model of Sartwell applied to incidence data for many diseases. Incubation periods vary widely by disease, and for this project, we chose lognormal parameters such that 90% of reported cases would occur within 6 weeks. We conducted separate algorithm detection trials for spike and gradual signals.Calculations of sensitivity, alert rate, and timeliness were derived with sets of 1000 repeated trials for each combination of algorithm and syndrome or disease. We applied minimum performance requirements of 95% sensitivity, ≤1 alert per 8 weeks, and mean detection delays of <2 weeks. The rule adopted for recommending an alerting method was to seek the method with the lowest alert rate that satisfied the sensitivity, alert rate, and delay criteria.ResultsThe Table shows the syndromes with chosen algorithms and thresholds for detection of the gradual signals. The scan statistic Gscan and the historical limits method HistLim achieved consistently higher sensitivities with acceptable alert rates than the other methods applied . The presentation will extend the results to reportable disease and clinical positive indicators and to the spike signals for all indicators.ConclusionsAmong results for both signal types, the results yielded a few preferred methods covering all chosen indicator streams. Monitored indicators with median weekly counts = 0 remain a challenge requiring more background data and veterinarian judgment. From analysis of orders from the few available laboratories, manual review will be required to achieve accurate syndromic categorization for each lab. Monitoring of test positives will require combined analysis of positive herd counts and percentages (of all tested herds) due to routine variation in laboratory submissions.

Preventing Adverse Events at Research Facilities.

In this article, adverse events are defined as events that lead to significant injury or illness, unrelieved pain or distress, orthe death of an animal, excluding those caused by IACUC-approved research procedures. The ability to identify possible adverse events is an essential step in planning for risk prevention and mitigation. Using data from news sources and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) website, this article provides guidance to research facilities regarding various types of adverse events to consider in risk management plans because these events might occur or have occurred and, in some cases, have been documented as noncompliances at APHIS-regulated research facilities. APHIS classifies noncompliances as 'direct' when they currently (at the time of the inspection) have a serious or severe adverse effect on the health and wellbeing of animals. Not all direct noncompliances are associated with adverse events, and not all adverse events are documented as direct noncompliances (for example, a past adverse event that does not currently affect the wellbeing of animals is not a direct noncompliance). However, because APHIS does not require reporting of adverse events, the information regarding direct noncompliances was the only APHIS data available to study adverse events at research facilities. Direct noncompliances documented by APHIS were 4% of all documented noncompliances from 2010 through 2014. The greatestnumber of direct noncompliances was in the category of veterinary care issues (44%), followed by animal husbandry issues(34%), 'other issues' (15%), and physical plant issues (7%). The category of other issues included events due to human error,equipment failures, and accidents.

Modeling Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Habitat Connectivity to Identify Potential Corridors for Rabies Spread.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Wildlife Services National Rabies Management Program has conducted cooperative oral rabies vaccination (ORV) programs since 1997. Understanding the eco-epidemiology of raccoon (Procyon lotor) variant rabies (raccoon rabies) is critical to successful management. Pine (Pinus spp.)-dominated landscapes generally support low relative raccoon densities that may inhibit rabies spread. However, confounding landscape features, such as wetlands and human development, represent potentially elevated risk corridors for rabies spread, possibly imperiling enhanced rabies surveillance and ORV planning. Raccoon habitat suitability in pine-dominated landscapes in Massachusetts, Florida, and Alabama was modeled by the maximum entropy (Maxent) procedure using raccoon presence, and landscape and environmental data. Replicated (n = 100/state) bootstrapped Maxent models based on raccoon sampling locations from 2012–2014 indicated that soil type was the most influential variable in Alabama (permutation importance PI = 38.3), which, based on its relation to landcover type and resource distribution and abundance, was unsurprising. Precipitation (PI = 46.9) and temperature (PI = 52.1) were the most important variables in Massachusetts and Florida, but these possibly spurious results require further investigation. The Alabama Maxent probability surface map was ingested into Circuitscape for conductance visualizations of potential areas of habitat connectivity. Incorporating these and future results into raccoon rabies containment and elimination strategies could result in significant cost-savings for rabies management here and elsewhere.

Use of Temperature, Humidity, and Slaughter Condemnation Data to Predict Increases in Transport Losses in Three Classes of Swine and Resulting Foregone Revenue.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) conducts weekly surveillance of slaughter condemnation rates to provide early warning for emerging diseases and to monitor health trends in swine. Swine deaths in-transit are an animal welfare concern and represent lost revenue for the swine industry. This retrospective observational study used ambient temperature and humidity data from weather stations near United States slaughter plants collected from 2010 to 2015 to predict the incidence and risk of death among swine in-transit and just prior to slaughter. The risk of death for market swine at a heat index (HI), which combines the effects of temperature and humidity, indicating moderately hot weather conditions between 85 and 92°F was 1.37 times greater than that of the baseline temperature range of 54–79°F. The risk of death for cull sows at an HI between 85 and 92°F was 1.93 times greater than that of average temperatures ranging from 54 to 79°F. Roaster swine (weigh < 220 lbs and often used for whole carcass roasting), however, had 0.80 times the risk when the HI was 85–92°F compared to a baseline temperature of 54–79°F. The risk of death for roaster swine at a minimum temperature between 40 and 50°F was 1.21 times greater than that of average temperatures ranging from 54 to 79°F. The risk of death for market swine at a minimum temperature range of 40–50°F was 0.97 times that of average temperatures ranging from 54 to 79°F. And for cull sows, the risk of death at a minimum temperature range of 40–50°F was 0.81 times the risk at the average temperature ranging from 54 to 79°F. Across the study period, cumulative foregone revenue, or revenue not realized due to swine condemnations, for all swine was $18.6 million and $4.3 million for cold temperatures and high HI ranges above the baseline, respectively. Marginal foregone revenue per hog in hotter months is higher due to seasonal peaks in swine prices. As a result of this study, the USDA-APHIS swine condemnation surveillance can incorporate weekly estimated HI values and ambient temperature data for slaughter establishments to provide additional information for analysts investigating signals (noteworthy increases above baseline) for “dead” condemnations. This study suggests that current mitigation measures are often not sufficient to prevent swine deaths due to ambient temperature extremes.

Evaluation of Syndromic Surveillance Data Streams in Animal Health

ObjectiveTo implement a systematic and uniform approach to evaluatingdata sources for syndromic surveillance within the United StatesDepartment of Agriculture (USDA) Animal and Plant HealthInspection Services (APHIS) Veterinary Services (VS) group.IntroductionUSDA-APHIS-VS utilizes several continuous data streams toincrease our knowledge of animal health and provide situationalawareness of emerging animal health issues. In addition, USDA-APHIS-VS often conducts pilot projects to see if regular data accessand analysis are feasible, and if so, if the information generated isuseful. Syndromic surveillance was developed for three goals: asyndromic monitoring system to identify new diseases, as an emergingdisease early warning system, and to provide situational awarenessof animal health status. Current efforts focus on monitoring diversedata, such as laboratory accessions or poison center calls, groupedinto syndromic or other health indicator categories, and are notintended to identify specific pre-determined diseases or pathogens.It is essential to regularly evaluate and re-evaluate the effectiveness ofour surveillance program. However, there are difficulties when usingtraditional surveillance evaluation methods, since the objectives andoutcomes of monitoring novel data streams from pilot projects arenot easily measurable. An additional challenge in the evaluation ofthese data streams is the identification of a method that can adapt tovarious context and inputs to make objective decisions. Until recently,assessment efforts have looked at the feasibility of regular analysisand reporting, but not at the utility of the information generated, northe plausibility and sustainability of longer term or expanded efforts.MethodsMethods for surveillance evaluation, syndromic surveillanceevaluation, and specifically for animal health syndromic surveillanceevaluation were researched via a literature review, exploration ofmethods used in-house on traditional surveillance systems, andthrough development over time of criteria that were seen as key tothe development of functioning, sustainable systems focusing onanimal health syndromic surveillance. Several methods were adaptedto create an approach that could organize information in a logicalmanner, clarify objectives, and make qualitative value assessmentsin situations where the quantitative aspects of costs and benefits werenot always straight forward. More than 25 articles were reviewed todetermine the best method of evaluation.ResultsThe RISKSUR Evaluation Support Tool (EVA) provided themajority of the methodology for the evaluations of our data sources.The EVA tool allows for an integrated approach for evaluation, andflexible methods to measure effectiveness and benefits of various datastreams. The most useful and common factors found to evaluate pilotdata sources of interest were how well the information generated bythe data streams could provide early detection of animal health events,and how well and how often situational awareness information onanimal health was generated. The EVA tool also helps identify andorganize criteria that are used to assess the objectives, and assignvalue.ConclusionsThe regular evaluation of syndromic surveillance data streamsin animal health is necessary to make best use of resources andmaximize benefits of data stream use. It is also useful to conductregular interim assessments on data streams in pilot phase to becertain key information for a final evaluation will be generated duringthe project. The RISKSUR EVA tool was found to be very flexibleand useful for allowing estimates of value to be made, even whenevaluating systems that do not have very specific, quantitativelymeasurable objectives. This tool provides flexibility in the selectionof attributes for evaluation, making it particularly useful whenexamining pilot project data streams. In combination with additionalreview methodologies from the literature review, a systematic anduniform approach to data stream evaluation was identified for futureuse.

Animal Surveillance: Use of Animal Health Data to Improve Global Disease Surveillance

ObjectiveTo identify gaps in current U.S. animal data collection andsurveillance systems, describe how surveillance of animal populationscan provide important early warnings of emerging threats to humanpopulations from infectious disease epidemics, and explain thebenefits of integrating human and animal surveillance data into acommon linked system.IntroductionSince the majority of emerging infectious diseases over the pastseveral decades have been zoonotic, animal health surveillance isnow recognized as a key element in predicting public health risks.Surveillance of animal populations can provide important earlywarnings of emerging threats to human populations from bioterrorismor naturally occurring infectious disease epidemics. This studyinvestigated current animal data collection and surveillance systems,isolated major gaps in state and national surveillance capabilities, andprovided recommendations to fill those gaps.MethodsInitially, an extensive literary review was performed to betterunderstand what is currently available for Animal Health DiseaseSurveillance in the United States and recognize the gaps. Afterthis review meetings were arranged with numerous animal healthand public health surveillance experts to isolate their surveillancepriorities: Department of Homeland Security (DHS), USDA AnimalPlant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), U.S. Army VeterinaryCorps, University Laboratories/Veterinary Teaching Hospitals, TheNational Capitol Region (NCR) ESSENCE Public Health SteeringCommittee, Maryland Arbovirus, Zoonotic, and Vector DiseaseGroup, and the Maryland State Veterinarian.A key animal disease surveillance stakeholder group that hasbeen underrepresented in prior requirements assessments is privatepractitioners. Preliminary discussions with key practitioners revealedclearly that there are monumental gaps in animal health surveillanceand it frequently limits their ability to rapidly respond to potentialdisease risks within their animal population of concern. To betterunderstand these gaps and potential ways to improve surveillance inthis area, a voluntary survey was developed and sent out to membersof the Maryland Veterinary Medical Association, Virginia VeterinaryMedical Association, and the District of Columbia Academy ofVeterinary Medicine.ResultsThrough this comprehensive study three current U.S. animal healthdisease surveillance gaps were isolated: integrated human and animalhealth surveillance, real-time animal health data collection, andcompanion animal surveillance.The survey was also well received and had almost 160 participants.Key issues addressed in the survey included: Animal Medical Records– availability, capabilities, and concerns, Zoonotic disease exposureand reporting, and support for development of integrated human-animal disease surveillance tools.Key Findings:- Almost 90% of responding practitioners reported havingencountered a zoonotic disease in practice.- Although less than 50% have reported a zoonotic disease to thestate or federal government.- Almost 70% of veterinarians in the National Capital Region(NCR) who participated in the survey also reported that they do nothave access to a surveillance system.- Veterinarian’s responses to the question: “What is your opinionof the current status of local, regional, or national zoonotic diseasesurveillance and the use of animal data for surveillance?”:“I think it is difficult to find up to date local and regional data.Email alerts etc. would be nice, rather than having to search forinformation that frequently isn’t current.”“I feel that many zoonotic diseases go unreported due to the lackof ease of reporting them and there is no communication betweenthe human and veterinary medical communities as far as reportablediseases affecting both people and animals.”“With the proliferation of tick borne disease, closer surveillance ofanimal cases would benefit human medicine. We knew exactly whenLyme hit our area. It was three years later before VA Dept. of Healthsent out a letter outlining the prevalence of disease in southwest VAhuman cases.”ConclusionsLinking the systems that report human and animal diseases wouldenable health professionals to swiftly identify and respond to zoonoticdisease outbreaks. Since funding for animal health surveillance islimited, integrating animal data into existing, well-established humanhealth surveillance systems would reduce the resources neededwhile still providing the advanced capabilities that are availablefor human health surveillance. The need for integrated surveillancehas been recognized by regulatory officials, but concerns regardingfunding, data acquisition, data confidentiality, and identification ofdesired stakeholders must still be addressed. The sometimes disparateinterests of large industry, private practitioners, and state governmentsmake gaining access to large centralized pools of animal health dataa challenge. By using existing human health surveillance systems asa platform to develop integrated human-animal surveillance systemsand by working with experts in the human surveillance field, theseconcerns can be ameliorated. This would lead to more advancedintegrated health surveillance capabilities and heighten the nation’sability to quickly detect and respond to emerging zoonotic diseases.

Evaluation and comparison of FTA card and CTAB DNA extraction methods for non-agricultural taxa.

Premise of the study:An efficient, effective DNA extraction method is necessary for comprehensive analysis of plant genomes. This study analyzed the quality of DNA obtained using paper FTA cards prepared directly in the field when compared to the more traditional cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)–based extraction methods from silica-dried samples.Methods:DNA was extracted using FTA cards according to the manufacturer’s protocol. In parallel, CTAB-based extractions were done using the automated AutoGen DNA isolation system. DNA quality for both methods was determined for 15 non-agricultural species collected in situ, by gel separation, spectrophotometry, fluorometry, and successful amplification and sequencing of nuclear and chloroplast gene markers.Results:The FTA card extraction method yielded less concentrated, but also less fragmented samples than the CTAB-based technique. The card-extracted samples provided DNA that could be successfully amplified and sequenced. The FTA cards are also useful because the collected samples do not require refrigeration, extensive laboratory expertise, or as many hazardous chemicals as extractions using the CTAB-based technique.Discussion:The relative success of the FTA card method in our study suggested that this method could be a valuable tool for studies in plant population genetics and conservation biology that may involve screening of hundreds of individual plants. The FTA cards, like the silica gel samples, do not contain plant material capable of propagation, and therefore do not require permits from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) for transportation.

99 BIRTH OF THE FIRST BOVINE EMBRYO TRANSFER CALF IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOSOVA

The objective of this applied field study was to assess the feasibility of successfully performing bovine embryo transfer in the Republic of Kosova—a feat that had not yet been accomplished in this newly independent (2008) eastern European country. Three Holstein heifers at the Iowa State University dairy farm were superovulated with a conventional descending dose regimen of FSH (Folltropin). Approximately 12 and 24 h after the observed onset of oestrus, heifers were inseminated with semen from a single Red Holstein bull. Embryos were non-surgically collected and washed in accordance with IETS procedures for sanitary handling of embryos. Embryos were cryopreserved for subsequent direct transfer. After obtaining an import permit from the Kosovo Food and Veterinary Agency, embryos were approved for export to the Republic of Kosova by the US Department of Agriculture, Animal Plant Health Inspection Service. Embryos were shipped via an express courier service. A total of 19 embryos were received in the Republic of Kosova. Recipients were monitored for signs of naturally occurring oestrus, and immediately before transfer, embryos were thawed by holding in air for 3 to 5 s followed by placement into a 37°C water bath for 25 to 30 s. The first-ever bovine embryo transfer calf in the Republic of Kosova was born July 6, 2015. A total of 9 calves were born from the 19 embryos transferred (47.4% embryo survival rate). Results of this applied field study show that bovine embryo transfer is feasible in the Republic of Kosova. Embryo transfer will be used to improve the quality of dairy cattle genetics in the Republic of Kosova and to subsequently increase the national supply of milk, decrease dependence on milk imports, and increase food security of the nation.

The Ground View of Navigating FIFRA and the ESA: One Pesticide Registrant's Perspective

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), enacted in 1947 and amended in 1972, 1978, and 1988, established federal regulation of pesticides in order to protect human and environmental health. FIFRA has been under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) since the EPA’s inception in 1970. Although FIFRA requires EPA to consider the benefits of a pesticide’s use, EPA must ensure that the pesticide is used without posing unreasonable adverse effects to human health or the environment. Furthermore, the Endangered Species Act (ESA), enacted in 1973, requires federal agencies to protect species vulnerable to extinction without consideration of costs. The amendments to FIFRA in 1972, 1978, 1988, and 1996 mandated the EPA review and reevaluate the eligibility of older pesticide products for reregistration under the updated FIFRA standard, while also complying with the new environmental laws of the 1970s. Today EPA’s goal is to review existing pesticide product registrations at least every 15 years under “Registration Review.” To meet their responsibilities under the ESA, EPA is initiating consultations with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) during the Registration Review process. The first pesticide active ingredients to advance to consultations under Registration Review are those in gas cartridge products. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) holds two gas cartridge product registrations. As a federal agency, APHIS also must comply with the ESA and consults with the USFWS on wildlife damage management activities, including tools such as pesticide products. This discussion presents APHIS’ unique ground view as a federal agency navigating the EPA’s ESA consultations during the Registration Review process, and describes the mitigation measures and their impacts on APHIS Wildlife Services’ activities.

A Decision Support Tool for Determining Federal Regulatory Authority over Products for Vertebrate Animals

Author(s): Ruell, Emily W.; Gatewood, Donna M.; O'Hare, Jeanette R.; Eisemann, John D. | Abstract: Products developed for vertebrate animals, including toxicants, repellents, contraceptives, vaccines, drugs, antimicrobials, diagnostic kits, and some devices, are regulated under a suite of federal laws. Authorization for the production, sale, and use of these products is primarily controlled by three federal agencies: the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Office of Pesticide Programs, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) Center for Veterinary Medicine, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). Furthermore, regulatory oversight of these products extends to research activities conducted during their development. However, determining the regulatory jurisdiction of new products can be confusing for researchers and product developers. In fact, the same product could be regulated under different laws and by more than one agency depending on its intended target population, function, product claims, and route of administration. Adding to this complexity, EPA, FDA, and APHIS have reached a series of formal and informal agreements on which agency will have primary oversight for a number of novel product types that do not clearly fall into established product categories. Here, we present a decision support tool that helps researchers and product developers identify the regulatory jurisdiction of new products, allowing them to comply with federal laws and consult with the appropriate agency early in the research and development phase. Such consultations ensure that resources are spent on studies that satisfy agency-specific data requirements for product registration, approval, and licensing.

Evaluating Feral Pig Management Strategies at Tejon Ranch, California

Author(s): White, Michael D; Kunkel, Kyran | Abstract: Feral swine are a serious management issue for natural resource managers, farmers, ranchers, and increasingly even suburban, private property owners. The 270,000-acre privately-owned Tejon Ranch in the Tehachapi Mountains of California, the subject of an historic conservation and land use agreement that conserved 90% of the property, supports a population of feral pigs that originally escaped from a private hunting ranch in the Tehachapi. Pigs now established on Tejon Ranch produce extensive ecological and economic damages, but are also a revenue source for the landowner’s hunting program. The Tejon Ranch Conservancy serves as steward of the conserved lands and is evaluating management options to reduce feral pig damages, while respecting the landowner’s right to maintain a hunting operation. To inform our management, we have modeled pig population responses to age- and sex-specific harvest scenarios. Consistent with previous studies, our models show that g70% of the population must be harvested annually to maintain or reduce the population, and that high harvest of adult females and juveniles is most effective at reducing abundance. Our analysis shows that population growth rates, which dictate harvest rates required for population control, are most sensitive to reproductive rates, and we have no site-specific data to estimate reproductive or mortality rates. As part of the National Feral Swine Damage Management Program, the Conservancy is partnering with the USDA Animal Plant Health Inspection Service on a research and monitoring project to estimate feral pig population size and demography; habitat use and home ranges; and damages at Tejon Ranch. The ultimate objective of the program is to evaluate techniques for reducing damages cause by feral swine.

Quantifying transgene flow rate in transgenic Sclerotinia-resistant peanut lines

Multi-year transgenic field trials were conducted to assess the extent of pollen-mediated transgenic flow in Virginia to support a petition requesting deregulated status for Blight Blocker peanuts from USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Biotechnology Regulatory Services (BRS). We measured transgene flow from transgenic lines to their non-transgenic parental cultivars. A colorimetric method based on quantification of hydrogen peroxide released from oxalic acid in the presence of the oxalate oxidase was used to screen seed embryos from non-transgenic rows at various distances from the transgenic source. The overall transgene flow rate in three cultivars was 0.2094% based on screening over 85,000 seeds. In general, the transgene flow rate greatly declined past 10m from the transgene source. However, a transgene flow rate of less than 0.05% did occur sporadically at greater distances than 10m. In conclusion, transgene flow in peanut can be spatially confined to provide negligible rates using relatively short separation distances. The extremely low rate of transgene flow at greater distance was dependent on ecological and environmental contexts, particularly on foraging patterns and flight distance of pollinators.

An Analysis of Arthropod Interceptions by APHIS-PPQ and Customs and Border Protection in Puerto Rico

USDA Animal Plant Health Inspection Service Plant Protection and Quarantine (APHIS-PPQ) and Customs and Border Protection (CBP) inspect traffic entering the United States for arthropods posing a threat to national agriculture or ecosystems. We analyzed interceptions made by these agencies in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands between October 2006 and December 2009 for patterns with regard to the frequency of interceptions, origins of interceptions, and the taxa intercepted. 6,952 arthropods were intercepted in freight or luggage entering Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands from foreign countries and 9,840 arthropods were intercepted from freight or luggage leaving Puerto Rico or the U.S. Virgin Islands destined for mainland U.S. Most (77%) of the arthropods intercepted entering Puerto Rico were intercepted in freight or luggage originating within the Caribbean. Most intercepted arthropods were in the order Hemiptera (52% of all interceptions), followed by Diptera (16%), Coleoptera (10%), Lepidoptera (8%), Thysanoptera (5%), Acari (4%), and Hymenoptera (2%). Intercepted arthropods from foreign countries were more equitably spread among orders, whereas 89% of the arthropods intercepted from Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands were in the orders Hemiptera and Diptera. Hemiptera made up 28% of the interceptions from foreign countries, but 69% of the interceptions made from Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Only 7 of 28 adventive arthropods recently established in Puerto Rico were intercepted during this study, and these were intercepted at relatively low frequency (between 3 and 132 interceptions; mean of 35 interceptions). We present data suggesting that most adventive arthropods that occur in both Puerto Rico and Florida established in Florida first, likely due to less stringent or non-existent import inspections for traffic coming into Puerto Rico from the U.S. Finally, we highlight several adventive arthropods that have recently established in Puerto Rico and discuss what we can learn from these invaders.

Asian Germplasm in American Horticulture: New Thoughts on an Old Theme

North American horticulture cultivates an astonishing diversity of ornamental species, from nearly every floristic region, but its landscapes are dominated by temperate species drawn from eastern Asia. The East Asiatic floristic region is one of the most diverse in the world with a high level of endemism across taxonomic ranks and ancient relicts of a once widespread flora. From this, a large number of ornamental genera and species have been introduced, from either a long history of cultivation in Asia or directly from the wild, where they have since become fixtures in European and American gardens. The success of Asian germplasm in American horticulture is attributable, in part, to a shared evolutionary history, climate matching, and pre-adaptability. Continuing access to these genetic resources is now governed by national legislation and influenced by an evolving international regime of access and benefit-sharing influenced by the Convention on Biological Diversity. Furthermore, updated plant quarantine regulations have added additional requirements for the importation of foreign plant genetic resources. The newly created category within the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Q37 regulations known as “not authorized pending pest risk analysis” (NAPPRA) restricts the import of plants for planting that may harbor pests or become pests that are not already established within the United States. To this end, scientists involved in the collection or use of Asian plant genetic resources are affected by recent changes in international and national laws, regulations, and access and benefit-sharing regimes.

Interceptions of Anthocoridae, Lasiochilidae, and Lyctocoridae at the Miami Plant Inspection Station (Hemiptera: Heteroptera)

Specimens of Anthocoridae, Lyctocoridae, and Lasiochilidae (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) intercepted at various ports-of-entry and housed at the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services (APHIS) Miami Plant Inspection Station (Miami, FL) were examined and identified to species or genus. The collection comprised 127 specimens intercepted primarily at the Miami Inspection Station. Specimens were distributed among 14 genera and 26 identified species in 3 families: Anthocoridae (99 specimens), Lyctocoridae (9 specimens), and Lasiochilidae (19 specimens). Seventy-eight of the 127 specimens could be identified to species. The remaining 49 specimens were identified to genus, except for 2 specimens that could not be identified below tribal level. For each identified species, we provide brief descriptions of habitat and prey preferences (where known), and a summary of currently known geographic range. Fifty-six of the 127 specimens were of a single genus: Orius Wolff, 1811 (Anthocoridae: Oriini). The specimens of Orius comprised at least 9 different species; 17 specimens could not be identified to species. The 127 specimens were intercepted on a variety of commodities, including ornamental plants, cut flowers, bouquets, agricultural produce, ceramic tiles, and wood products. Fourteen of the identified species do not currently occur in the continental U.S.; moreover, the 49 specimens that we could identify only to genus very likely also are of species not currently established in the continental U.S. The majority of intercepted specimens (93 of 127) arrived on shipments from the Neotropics and Europe. Specimens of Lasiochilidae and Scolopini (Anthocoridae) were entirely from shipments arriving from the Neotropical region. Specimens of Orius were intercepted on shipments from the Neotropics, Mexico, Europe, and Sub-Saharan Africa. Finally, 10 species were intercepted on shipments arriving from countries not previously listed as being part of their known geographic ranges. One Old World species, Cardiastethus affinis Poppius, 1909, known previously only from East Africa and India, was intercepted in 2 separate shipments arriving from Central America and the West Indies.

Phytosanitary irradiation for export of fresh produce: commercial adoption in Hawaii and current issues

Hawaii is a pioneer in the use of phytosanitary irradiation. Irradiation is an approved treatment to control quarantine insect pests in 17 fruits and 7 vegetables for export from Hawaii to the US mainland. The commercial X-ray irradiation facility, Hawaii Pride LLC, has been shipping tropical fruits and vegetables to the US mainland using irradiation since 2000. Hawaiian purple sweet potato is the highest volume product with annual exports of more than 12 million lbs (5,500 tonnes). The advent of generic radiation treatments for tephritid fruit flies (150 Gy) and other insects (400 Gy) has accelerated commodity export approvals and facilitated adoption by foreign trading part- ners. Current impediments to wider adoption include the labeling requirement, the 1 kGy limit for fresh horticultural products, and non-acceptance of phytosanitary irradiation in Japan and the European Union. USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has restricted the use of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) for irradiated fresh fruits exported to the US due to possible increased radio- tolerance in the target insects. Data are presented for response of melon fly in papaya to several types of MAP with radiation treatment at 45-65 Gy. Low oxygen atmo- spheres can increase insect radio-tolerance, but the effect is dependent on oxygen concentration and radiation dose.

Letter to the Editor

Risk AnalysisVolume 32, Issue 6 p. 949-950 Letter to the Editor Robert G. Ahern, Corresponding Author Robert G. Ahern U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), Center for Plant Health Science and Technology (CPHST), Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory (PERAL). Robert G. Ahern, 1730 Varsity Dr., Ste. 300, Raleigh, NC 27606-5202, USA; [email protected].Search for more papers by this authorRobert L. Griffin, Robert L. Griffin U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), Center for Plant Health Science and Technology (CPHST), Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory (PERAL).Search for more papers by this author Robert G. Ahern, Corresponding Author Robert G. Ahern U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), Center for Plant Health Science and Technology (CPHST), Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory (PERAL). Robert G. Ahern, 1730 Varsity Dr., Ste. 300, Raleigh, NC 27606-5202, USA; [email protected].Search for more papers by this authorRobert L. Griffin, Robert L. Griffin U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), Center for Plant Health Science and Technology (CPHST), Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory (PERAL).Search for more papers by this author First published: 18 June 2012 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2012.01816.xRead the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume32, Issue6June 2012Pages 949-950 RelatedInformation

Analysis of U.S. Genetically Engineered Crop Regulation and Litigation

ABSTRACTThe commercial potential of genetically engineered (GE) crops has not been fully realized in the United States. Over the past decade, environmental litigation dramatically affected the pace of GE crop development, testing, and deregulation. The U.S. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) regulates GE organisms that may pose a risk to plant or animal health. However, recent litigation initiated by nongovernmental organizations such as the Center for Food Safety and the International Center for Technology Assessment has exposed APHIS's vulnerability to lawsuits under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) for failing to assess the environmental risks of novel GE crops. In these cases, APHIS committed two types of mistakes. First, APHIS did not differentiate between traditional GE crops whose risks are well characterized and novel GE crops that may raise unique environmental risks and societal issues based on their distinctive biology. Consequently, it did not adequately evaluate the legally defined environmental risks of these novel crops. Second, APHIS did not fully appreciate NEPA's sweeping scope and focus on procedural compliance to ensure transparent and thorough environmental decision making. As a result, APHIS impeded the development and commercialization of GE crops and must take a more defensive posture in the future to deter costly and lengthy NEPA litigation in the case of novel GE crops.