Animal Phobia Research Articles

Model for an intelligent conversational therapeutic assistant to guide a small animal phobias treatment

People who suffer from some type of phobia usually have a high deterioration in their lives. Still, a large percentage of these people do not seek treatment, either due to lack of motivation, acceptance, or poor accessibility. The present research aims to alleviate the aforementioned problem through the development of a conceptual model of a conversational Intelligent Therapeutic Assistant (ATIC) to guide and personalize a self-applying gradual exposure treatment for small animal phobias. The document presents the progress obtained from the conceptual model based on the literature review and a preliminary study with psychologists with experience in the area of interest to validate and provide feedback on the proposed conceptual model.

Emotions triggered by live arthropods shed light on spider phobia

Spiders are mostly harmless, yet they often trigger high levels of both fear and disgust, and arachnophobia (the phobia of spiders) ranks among the most common specific animal phobias. To investigate this apparent paradox, we turned to the only close relatives of spiders that pose a real danger to humans: scorpions. We adopted a unique methodology in order to assess authentic emotions elicited by arthropods. Over 300 respondents were asked to rate live specimens of 62 arthropod species (including spiders, scorpions, cockroaches, and other insects) based on perceived fear, disgust, and beauty. We found that species’ scores on all three scales depended on the higher taxon as well as on body size. Spiders, scorpions, and other arachnids scored the highest in fear and disgust, while beetles and crabs scored the highest in beauty. Moreover, all chelicerates were perceived as one cohesive group, distinct from other arthropods, such as insects or crabs. Based on these results, we hypothesize that the fear of spiders might be triggered by a generalized fear of chelicerates, with scorpions being the original stimulus that signals danger.

Spider Phobia: Neural Networks Informing Diagnosis and (Virtual/Augmented Reality-Based) Cognitive Behavioral Psychotherapy-A Narrative Review.

Recent fMRI studies on specific animal phobias, particularly spider phobia (arachnophobia), have identified a large variety of specific brain regions involved in normal and disturbed fear processing. Both functional and structural brain abnormalities have been identified among phobic patients. Current research suggests that both conscious and subconscious fear processing play a crucial role in phobic disorders. Cognitive behavioral therapy has been identified as an effective treatment for specific phobias and has been associated with neuroplastic effects which can be evaluated using current neuroimaging techniques. Recent research suggests that new approaches using virtual (VR) or augmented reality (AR) tend to be similarly effective as traditional “in vivo” therapy methods and could expand treatment options for different medical or individual scenarios. This narrative review elaborates on neural structures and particularities of arachnophobia. Current treatment options are discussed and future research questions are highlighted.

Subjective distress and physiological reactivity during anxiety-evoking imagery in social anxiety

Anxiety disorders differ in the association between subjective distress and physiological reactivity towards threat. For some anxiety disorders, like Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD), the relationship among emotion responses remains unclear. The current study examines how different components of subjective distress relate to autonomic arousal (Heart Rate, Skin Conductance Levels) and behavioural expressions (startle reflex, corrugator activity) in individuals with SAD symptoms and healthy controls. Thirty-one participants fitting clinical criteria for SAD and 48 healthy controls imagined four types of anxiety-evoking situations (panic, GAD, SAD and animal phobia), while we measured their physiological reactivity. Participants rated the unpleasantness, arousal and fear they experienced during each script. Results showed that the groups did not differ substantially in physiological or subjective responding to anxious imagery, although the SAD group tended to report more fear across scripts. For socially anxious individuals higher Skin Conductance Levels were associated with higher perceived arousal across scripts, but not for controls. Current findings indicate a positive association between perceived and autonomic arousal in individuals with SAD, when imagining anxious situations. This may reflect better perception of bodily signals in social anxiety under certain conditions.

The transdiagnostic nature of disgust propensity: An examination of its associations with anxiety and obsessive compulsive-related disorder symptoms

Significant research highlights the role of disgust propensity in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and other anxiety-based diagnoses and suggests that heightened disgust propensity may be a transdiagnostic risk factor for these disorders. However, OCD was reclassified from an anxiety to an obsessive-compulsive and related disorder (OCRD), due in part to OCD being associated with a range of non-anxiety affective experiences, including disgust. A fair amount of work has examined the relationship between disgust, OCD, and anxiety disorders; less information is available on its relation to the OCRDs. The present study examined associations between specific domains of disgust propensity and self-reported symptoms of several anxiety disorders, OCD, body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), and hoarding in two non-clinical samples. Results showed that specific phobia, OCD, and BDD symptoms were consistently and strongly correlated with disgust domains. Results of multivariate regression analyses indicated replicable relationships between animal-reminder disgust and specific phobia symptoms, core disgust and animal phobia symptoms, and contamination disgust and cleaning symptoms, controlling for negative affect, anxiety sensitivity, and experiential avoidance. Results were inconsistent for panic, BDD, and hoarding symptoms. These results partially support the argument that the OCRDs are more distinct than similar and that OCD and some anxiety disorders are defined by common psychological processes.

Anxiety—genuine or spurious?

In this essay I use contemporary accounts, often journalistic, of the extremely anxious condition that young adults, “quarter lifers,” appear to be suffering in large numbers. Their anxiety is often characterized by a paralyzing inability to accomplish the most trivial seeming tasks, while nonetheless working successfully at their jobs. They express bitter disappointments about the state of their lives, when their dreams—framed largely by their parents—have failed to materialize. Why this rise in anxiety— not only in the numbers of diagnoses and treatments we are now seeing—but in young adults’ experience of it as a semi-permanent condition?
 The answer lies in Freud’s somewhat difficult 1925 essay, “Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety,” in which Freud links anxietywith “animal phobias” and “agoraphobias.” Unlike with the other two neurotic indicators (inhibitions and symptoms), anxiety is not an unconscious repression of enjoyment. Instead anxiety stages a unique reenactment of both Oedipus and castration anxiety simultaneously: the anxious person is pulled by contrary impulses, wanting to earn the Father’s love by giving up Oedipal desires (out of fear of castration by the Father), and a unique return of Oedipus (desire to possess the Mother by wishing their Father dead). Freud’s example is Little Hans, he of the horse phobia. The agoraphobia of today’s young adults is prime example of anxiety as the psychical inability to leave home or live their life outside their parents’ restrictive and narrow version of what their child’s life “ought to be.”

Cockroaches are scarier than snakes and spiders: Validation of an affective standardized set of animal images (ASSAI).

Research on emotional processes has been closely related to the use of emotional stimuli, promoting the development of different standardized sets of images. However, some kinds of images that would be relevant in clinical psychology research are not available, especially for small animal phobias. The aim of the present study is to validate a set of animal images that includes images of cockroaches, which are not present in the current sets of images. Two hundred and forty images depicting five types of animals (cockroaches, spiders, snakes, cats, and butterflies) were collected from online public domains. Four hundred and twenty-four participants (72.9% women) took part in the study rating the images in two affective dimensions (i.e., valence and arousal). Cockroach pictures were rated as significantly more unpleasant than pictures of spiders, snakes, butterflies, and cats. Moreover, results revealed that women rated cockroach, spider, and snake pictures as more negative than men did. Also, women in comparison with men rated cockroach images as more arousing. The results highlight the importance of using images of cockroaches, due to their high negative valence, which even exceeds that of snakes and spiders, the unpleasant animals typically used in phobic research. This set of images can be useful in research on small-animal phobias.

Neuronal Correlates of Small Animal Phobia in Human Subjects through fMRI: The Role of the Number and Proximity of Stimuli.

Brain regions involved in small-animal phobia include subcortical and cortical areas. The present study explored the neuronal correlates of small-animal phobia through fMRI data to determine whether a manipulation of number and proximity parameters affects the neurobiology of the processing of feared stimuli. The participants were 40 individuals with phobia and 40 individuals without phobia (28.7% male and 71.3% female). They watched videos of real and virtual images of spiders, cockroaches and lizards in motion presented more or less nearby with one or three stimuli in the different conditions. The results suggested a differential brain activity between participants with and without phobia depending on the proximity and number of phobic stimuli. Proximity activated the motor response marked by the precentral gyrus and the cingulate gyrus. By contrast, the number of stimuli was associated with significant sensory activity in the postcentral gyrus and ventromedial prefrontal cortex. We also observed a greater activity in the occipital cortex when exploring the number compared to the proximity factor. Threatening stimuli presented nearby and those presented in greater numbers generated an intense phobic response, suggesting a different emotion regulation strategy. Based on these findings, exposure therapies might consider including proximity to the threat and number of stimuli as key factors in treatment.

Adults with Animal Phobia: Systematic Replication of Clinical Cases

Adults with Animal Phobia: Systematic Replication of Clinical Cases

The Effect of Personality Traits on Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Outcomes in Student Pharmacists with Rat Phobia: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Background: Little is known about which personality traits determine the effectiveness of various types of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) on animal phobia. The objective of the present study was to investigate a possible association between personality traits and the outcome of single- and multi-session CBT.Methods: The present randomized clinical trial was conducted from November 2018 to May 2019 in Shiraz, Iran. Forty female students with rat phobia, who met the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) criteria, were systematically allocated into a single- and a multi-session therapy group (odd numbers one-session treatment, even numbers multi-session treatment). In both groups, the students were gradually exposed to rats as part of the treatment. Psychological measures (state-anxiety, rat phobia, and disgust questionnaires) were used to compare pre- and post-intervention outcomes. Multivariate analysis of covariance was used to assess which personality traits influenced the intervention outcome. The statistical analysis was performed using SPSS (version 20.0) and P values<0.05 were considered statistically significant.Results: Rat phobia was positively and significantly affected by conscientiousness (P=0.001) and agreeableness (P=0.003). Of these personality traits, only a higher degree of conscientiousness resulted in a further reduction of state anxiety after the intervention (P=0.005). There were no significant differences between the pre- and post-intervention outcomes.Conclusion: The outcome of single- and multi-session rat phobia therapies was associated with specific personality traits of the participants, namely conscientiousness and agreeableness. Both intervention methods had an equal effect on reducing rat phobia.

Evaluation of the Effectiveness of One- and Multi-Session Exposure-Based Treatments in Reducing Biological and Psychological Responses to Rat Phobia Among Students.

BackgroundAnimal phobia is one of the most common forms of specific phobias. This anxiety disorder challenges the medical student working with animal models. Regarding this, the present study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of one- and multi-session cognitive exposure-based treatments in students with rat phobia.MethodsFor the purpose of the study, a total of 40 female students with rat phobia were allocated into two groups of one- and multi-session cognitive exposure-based treatments. The data were collected using psychological measures, including state anxiety, rat phobia, and disgust questionnaires, which were completed in three stages, including the baseline, pre-treatment, and post-treatment. The gene expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (ie, interleukin-1 [IL-1], nuclear factor-kappaB [NF-κB], and tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNFα]) associated with acute stress, as well as the serum levels of IL-6 and cortisol, were determined using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) methods. This study was registered at the Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials (IRCT20171123037602N1).ResultsAccording to the results, both treatments yielded a significant reduction in almost all psychological measures and biological variables, except for IL-6. Rat phobia was the only variable that showed a statistically greater reduction in the multi-session treatment group. Furthermore, rat phobia and disgust reduction were maintained in both groups to the same extent during follow-up.ConclusionThe findings of the present study were indicative of the incidence of habituation in psychological and biological factors following exposure therapy. Both one- and multi-session treatments reduced the factors associated with rat phobia almost to the same degree. As a result of the high levels of disgust, anxiety-related biological factors remained high in four students despite observing a significant reduction in their fear. This led to passive avoidance in this group. The OST enabled the students to handle rats in less than half a day. Accordingly, it could be applied as a half-day workshop for students in medical universities to avoid the incidence of associated anxiety-related disorders in this group.

Assessing the role of the amygdala in fear of pain: Neural activation under threat of shock

IntroductionThe DSM-5 explicitly states that the neural system model of specific phobia is centered on the amygdala. However, this hypothesis is predominantly supported by human studies on animal phobia, whereas visual cuing of other specific phobias, such as dental fear, do not consistently show amygdala activation. Considering that fear of anticipated pain is one of the best predictors of dental phobia, the current study investigated neural and autonomic activity of pain anticipation in individuals varying in the degree of fear of dental pain. MethodFunctional brain activity (fMRI) was measured in women (n = 31) selected to vary in the degree of self-reported fear of dental pain when under the threat of shock, in which one color signaled the possibility of receiving a painful electric shock and another color signaled safety. ResultsEnhanced functional activity during threat, compared to safety, was found in regions including anterior insula and anterior/mid cingulate cortex. Importantly, threat reactivity in the anterior insula increased as reported fear of pain increased and further predicted skin conductance changes during pain anticipation. LimitationsThe sample was comprised of women. ConclusionsIndividual differences in fear of pain vary with activation in the anterior insula, rather than with the amygdala, indicating that fear is not uniquely associated with amygdala activation. Whereas coping techniques such as emotion regulation have been found to vary with activation in a frontal-amygdala circuit when confronted with visual cues, precision psychiatry may need to target specific brain circuits to diagnose and treat different types of specific phobia.

Design of smart objects of fear with a taxonomy of factors affecting the user experience of exposure therapy systems for small-animal phobias

In vivo exposure therapy (IVET) is the treatment of choice for specific phobias, including animal phobia. Recently virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) and Augmented reality exposure therapy (ARET) have been presented and validated as suitable tools, however, to the best of our knowledge, no other work has identified nor provided an explicit classification or taxonomy to classify, compare and even inform the design of these kind of systems. In this work we propose a taxonomy of feedback factors that affect the experience of use of mixed reality systems for small-animal phobias. The taxonomy comprises feedback factors in three categories, namely realism, interaction, and intensity; while considering: auditory, haptic and visual dimensions for each. To illustrate this taxonomy in use, we conducted a survey to compare mixed reality applications for small-animal phobias, analysing their features according to the factors proposed in the taxonomy. In addition, we developed the concept of smart objects of fear by means of a design fiction world. In this world, in addition to IVET, VRET and ARET, where the objects of fear are either real (in the former) or virtual (in the two later), we envision a new kind of mixed reality therapy, where the objects of fear are represented using context-aware smart objects, capable of inferring the emotional state of the patient, and of adapting their behavior to improve the system’s response during the therapy; which in turn, may enrich the patient’s therapy experience. We validated the perceived usability of this design fiction world with an expert in exposure therapy for small-animal phobias, whom perceived it as useful and correct. Finally, we show how the use of the taxonomy allowed us to discuss the features of the proposed future technologies in terms of how they furnish each of the factors of the taxonomy.

Effects of "Dirty" Information on Disgust Responding to an Unknown Animal in Children: The Moderating Role of Maternal Disgust Proneness

Although research has shown that disgust facilitates avoidance of small animals among adults, much less is known about disgust appraisals of small animals in children as well as the predictors of such appraisals. To address this gap, children (ages 5–13) were exposed to dirt-related and cleanliness-related information about unknown animals. The extent to which these types of information influenced children's feelings of fear, disgust, positivity, and avoidance behavior in relation to the animals was examined. The present study then examined the extent to which child and maternal disgust proneness predicted feelings of disgust to the ‘dirty’ animal. The findings show that providing dirt-related information resulted in a significant increase in disgust, but not fear, responding to the animal. Dirt-related information also resulted in a significant decrease in positive feelings toward the animal. Conversely, providing cleanliness-related information resulted in a significant decrease in disgust, but not fear, responding to the animal. In addition, providing cleanliness-related information resulted in a significant increase in positive feelings toward the animal. Children also engage in more avoidance of the animal described as dirty compared to the animal described as clean. In addition, subsequent analysis revealed an interaction between child and maternal disgust propensity in predicting learned disgust to the dirty animal such that the highest levels of feelings of disgust to the dirty animal were observed among children with high disgust proneness who also have mothers with high disgust proneness. The implications of these findings for conceptualizing the role of disgust in animal phobias among youth will be discussed.

Scary and nasty beasts: Self-reported fear and disgust of common phobic animals.

Animal phobias are one of the most prevalent mental disorders. We analysed how fear and disgust, two emotions involved in their onset and maintenance, are elicited by common phobic animals. In an online survey, the subjects rated 25 animal images according to elicited fear and disgust. Additionally, they completed four psychometrics, the Fear Survey Schedule II (FSS), Disgust Scale - Revised (DS-R), Snake Questionnaire (SNAQ), and Spider Questionnaire (SPQ). Based on a redundancy analysis, fear and disgust image ratings could be described by two axes, one reflecting a general negative perception of animals associated with higher FSS and DS-R scores and the second one describing a specific aversion to snakes and spiders associated with higher SNAQ and SPQ scores. The animals can be separated into five distinct clusters: (1) non-slimy invertebrates; (2) snakes; (3) mice, rats, and bats; (4) human endo- and exoparasites (intestinal helminths and louse); and (5) farm/pet animals. However, only snakes, spiders, and parasites evoke intense fear and disgust in the non-clinical population. In conclusion, rating animal images according to fear and disgust can be an alternative and reliable method to standard scales. Moreover, tendencies to overgeneralize irrational fears onto other harmless species from the same category can be used for quick animal phobia detection.

Effect of phobic visual stimulation on spinal nociception

To explore the role of strong negative emotions in spinal nociception, we evaluated the effect of fear-relevant videos of small animals on the nociceptive withdrawal reflex (NWR) and reflex-related pain perception in healthy subjects with a specific phobia of small animals. Twenty healthy subjects with a specific phobia of small animals diagnosed according to DSM-V criteria were included in this study. The NWR was evoked in the lower limb by stimulating the sural nerve and recording EMG activity in the biceps femoris. NWR pain-related perception was quantified on an 11-point numerical rating scale (NRS). Subjects were examined during 4 recording sessions. In the baseline session, no images were projected. In the other sessions, the subjects were invited to watch a video containing either neutral or phobic content. To evaluate neurovegetative responses, we measured heart rate using a pulse oximeter during each recording session. A series of clinical rating scales were administered to subjects to evaluate disgust, fear, and anxiety. The NWR amplitude was significantly increased during the phobic video session and was associated with the fear inventory scale scores. Women showed higher NWR amplitude values during the phobic video session and a lower recovery rate during the after-effect video session than did men. The NWR amplitude and related pain perception were dissociated from each other during the phobic video session, as the NRS score remained unchanged while the NWR increased in amplitude. Emotions induced by the viewing of phobic videos seem to enhance the activation of the spinal circuitries involved in nociception and the withdrawal reaction without interfering with pain processing pathways or dissociating the reflex response from related pain perception. This effect appears to differ by sex, as it was more intense and longer lasting in women than in men. Emotions induced by phobic video viewing increase the alertness devoted to the defensive reaction by emphasizing nociceptive responses independently from pain perception. The NWR may represent an interesting tool for exploring the interaction between strong negative emotions and spinal nociception. A better understanding of this mechanism may be a theoretical prerequisite for the optimization of pain management in several chronic pain syndromes.

Autonomic reactivity in blood-injection-injury and snake phobia

ObjectiveThis research aimed to study the salivary flow and other autonomic reactions -heart rate (HR) and skin conductance response (SCR)- in blood-injection-injury (BII) phobia and snake phobia participants, under the assumption that exposure to blood-related pictures in BII phobia will provoke an increase in parasympathetic activity that, in turn, will lead to a greater saliva production than other affective contents. MethodsWe selected 18 BII phobia and 14 snake phobia participants along with 22 non-phobia individuals. All participants were exposed to 3 blocks of pictures (12 pictures per block) depicting either mutilations, snakes or neutral, household objects. Saliva samples were taken in the 2-min interval before and after each block. ResultsIn comparison to other contents, blood-related pictures provoked an increase in salivary flow in BII phobia participants, as well as an increase in the number of SCRs. In the snake phobia group, snake pictures provoked HR acceleration, but the SCRs they elicited did not differ from the SCRs provoked by the blood-related pictures. ConclusionBII phobia individuals react to their phobic object with a series of physiological changes resulting from a sympathetic-parasympathetic co-activation. This is in contrast with other specific phobias (e.g., small animal phobias) that usually show a sympathetically mediated, defensive reactivity when exposed to their disorder-relevant stimuli. These data support the use of therapeutic interventions in BII phobia that may differ in some respect from those used in other specific phobias.

Cognitive reappraisal of snake and spider pictures: An event-related potentials study

Fear of snakes and spiders are common animal phobias. Emotion regulation can change the response to emotional stimuli, including snakes and spiders. It is well known that emotion regulation modulates the late positive potential (LPP), which reflects sustained motivated attention. However, research concerning the effect of emotion regulation on the early posterior negativity (EPN), which reflects early selective attention, is scarce. The present research question was whether the EPN and LPP amplitudes are modulated by regulation of emotional responses to snake and spider stimuli. Emotion up- and down-regulation were expected to enhance and reduce the LPP amplitude, respectively, but emotion regulation was not expected to modulate the EPN amplitude. Female participants passively viewed snake, spider, and bird pictures, and up- and down-regulated their emotional responses to the snake and spider pictures using self-focused reappraisal, while their electroencephalogram was recorded. There were EPNs for snakes and spiders vs. birds, as well as for snakes vs. spiders. The LPP amplitude tended to be enhanced for snakes and spiders compared to birds. Most importantly, the LPP amplitude was larger in the up-regulate than in the down-regulate condition for both snakes and spiders, but there was no evidence that the EPN amplitude was modulated by emotion regulation. This suggests that emotion regulation modulated sustained motivated attention, but not early selective attention, to snakes and spiders. The findings are in line with the notion that the emotional modulation of the EPN is more automatic than the emotional modulation of the LPP.

Risk Factors and Comorbidity in Childhood Specific Phobias

This study aims to investigate possible risk factors associated with specific phobias in children and comorbid mental disorders. Patients between 6-18 years of age who had presented to the child psychiatry outpatient clinic at Bezmialem Vakif University between October 2017 and February 2018 were assessed with The Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia- Present version (KSADS-P) for specific phobias and comorbid diagnoses. Risk factors of specific phobia were further evaluated with a data collection tool, developed by the authors of the present study. The most common specific phobia subtype was animal phobia (n=48; 48%), which was followed by natural environment (n=27; 27%), blood-injection (n=25; 25%), situational (n=17; 17%) and other phobia (n=2; 2%). The majority of the subjects (n=59; 63.4%) reported that specific phobias began between 3-7 years of age. While %32 percent of subjects reported a sudden onset, for 40% the onset was slow and gradual. Majority of the participants (67.7%) were not able to identify a possible trigger, whilst 25.3% reported that it started after a certain event. Only 10% of the participants had reportedly sought treatment for phobia in the past. Subjects with animal phobia or situational phobia had lower, blood/injection type phobia or natural environment type phobias had higher rates of comorbidity with an externalizing disorder as compared to the rest of the sample(Χ2=9.54, p=0.002 and Χ2=11.51, p=0.001, Χ2=6.00, p=0.014 and Χ2=8.45, p=0.004; respectively). In conclusion children and adolescents do not appear to seek help for specific phobias and such cases can be easily missed if not specifically enquired by clinicians.

Evaluación y tratamiento de un caso de cinofobia

This paper focused on the treatment of a 21-year-old university student diagnosed with specific animal phobia type (cynophobia). The emergence of avoidance responses is associated with the intent of being bitten by a dog at the age of 10 years. From this moment the fear of the dogs was intensifying and generalizing. The aim of the intervention was to reduce/eliminate the frequency and intensity of anxiety responses to dogs. The process of diagnostic evaluation included self-report measures (interview, self-tests and records) and behavioral observation. The treatment consisted of gradual exposure with modeling participant for coping with the situations feared; sessions were held weekly and last about 90 minutes. It was quantified the frequency of responses of exposure, its duration and intensity of the distress experienced during exhibitions both in the clinical setting as during the “homework”. The results show the effectiveness of treatment and the stability of their effects on the follow-up after 12 months.