Animal Matter Research Articles

Food and feeding habits of the endemic fish, Hypselobarbus thomassi (Day, 1874) in the Kallada River, Kerala, India

The feeding habits of the endemic cyprinid fish, Hypselobarbus thomassi (Day, 1874) was studied based on the monthly sampling in the Kallada River, Kerala, India from April 2010 to March 2011. Gut contents of 183 fish specimens were analysed and quantified using occurrence and volumetric methods. Analysis of the gut contents showed that semi-digested plant matter (22.11%) was the most preferred food item of the fish followed by Bacillariophyceae (19.80%), Chlorophyceae (19.38%), semi-digested animal matter (11.21%), soil particles (9.20%), seeds of plants (6.70%), Cyanophyceae (5.51%) and miscellaneous items (6.08%). The results indicated that H. thomassi is an omnivorous-stenophagic-column feeder. The gastrosomatic index (GaSI) ranged from 3.28-7.33 with an increment from August to November coincides with the spawning season and energy preservation for gonadal development. The information on feeding ecology of H. thomassi , a critically endangered fresh water fish from Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot would be useful towards formulating proper conservation plan for the species in its natural range.

Vulture Genomes Reveal Molecular Adaptations Underlying Obligate Scavenging and Low Levels of Genetic Diversity.

Obligate scavenging on the dead and decaying animal matter is a rare dietary specialization that in extant vertebrates is restricted to vultures. These birds perform essential ecological services, yet many vulture species have undergone recent steep population declines and are now endangered. To test for molecular adaptations underlying obligate scavenging in vultures, and to assess whether genomic features might have contributed to their population declines, we generated high-quality genomes of the Himalayan and bearded vultures, representing both independent origins of scavenging within the Accipitridae, alongside a sister taxon, the upland buzzard. By comparing our data to published sequences from other birds, we show that the evolution of obligate scavenging in vultures has been accompanied by widespread positive selection acting on genes underlying gastric acid production, and immunity. Moreover, we find evidence of parallel molecular evolution, with amino acid replacements shared among divergent lineages of these scavengers. Our genome-wide screens also reveal that both the Himalayan and bearded vultures exhibit low levels of genetic diversity, equating to around a half of the mean genetic diversity of other bird genomes examined. However, demographic reconstructions indicate that population declines began at around the Last Glacial Maximum, predating the well-documented dramatic declines of the past three decades. Taken together, our genomic analyses imply that vultures harbor unique adaptations for processing carrion, but that modern populations are genetically depauperate and thus especially vulnerable to further genetic erosion through anthropogenic activities.

Representing nonhuman animals as equals: An ecolinguistic analysis of vegan campaigns

Abstract Ecolinguistics studies the interactions between language and ecology. It investigates whether the stories created by language are destructive or beneficial to all the constituents of the environment. In search of positive stories for our environment, this article focuses on vegan campaigns which generally bring awareness about veganism that, in turn, advocates protection of nonhuman animals and abstention from their exploitation. Nonhuman animals are part of the ecosystem and the way they are portrayed in language may determine the relationship between human and nonhuman animals. As vegan campaigns refer to nonhuman animals as sentient living beings, it is important to analyze whether the language and image of these campaigns articulate their purposes and create beneficial stories for nonhuman species. This article explores the stories regarding nonhuman animals in 27 posters of the vegan campaign “Go Vegan World” and examines how these stories are shaped and whether they are aligned with vegan values. The study is approached from an ecolinguistic perspective with a focus on multimodality where the language was analyzed through van Leeuwen’s Social Actor and Social Action theory, and the image was analyzed with Kress and van Leeuwen’s Grammar of Visual Design. Further, the analysis involves the ecosophy defined as a personal ecological philosophy of relationships between human and nonhuman animals, plants, and the physical environment. The findings suggest that the campaign language and image shape three stories: salience where nonhuman animals are individuals with their own feelings and lives; conviction that nonhuman animals matter as much as humans; ideology where biocentrism is promoted. By comparing these stories with the article’s ecosophy, an ecolinguistic analysis showed that they are largely beneficial in representing nonhuman animals as sentient living beings who are equal to humans.

Foraging Habits of Green Sea Turtles (Chelonia mydas) in the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico

Knowledge of green turtle (Chelonia mydas) foraging ecology in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico (GOM) is critical as populations begin to recover from heavy harvesting in prior centuries. We present a comprehensive long-term assessment of green turtle diets from carcasses salvaged from 1987 to 2014 along the Texas coast. Digestive tract contents were examined from 420 green turtles, ranging in size from 7.3 to 86.0 cm in straight carapace length (SCLmax). Green turtles as small as 16.2 cm SCLmaxrecruit from the oceanic environment to nearshore foraging habitat in the northwestern GOM and consume macroalgae principally. A successive shift in diet and habitat to inshore seagrasses was evident by the seagrass-dominated diet of turtles larger than 30 cm SCLmax. Animal matter remained a frequently ingested diet item suggesting these immature green turtles are better classified as omnivores. The overall evidence indicates that Texas’ recovering green turtle assemblage is exhibiting foraging plasticity within seagrass meadows changing species composition and density.

Water and food utilization efficiencies in sheep and their relationship with some production traits

• The use of water by sheep needs more attention from researches and sheep breeders. • Residual water intake (RWI) is a new trait for sheep selection. • Residual feed and residual water intake is a new trait for sheep selection. • Sheep more efficient in water use are more efficient in food use. • Sheep more efficient in water and food use are desirable in a sustainable industry. The objective of this study was evaluate the efficiency in water and food use in sheep production, using two new traits (residual water intake - RWI; residual feed and residual water intake - RFRWI). For this purpose, we evaluated the relationships between the traits total water intake, RWI and RFRWI with water measures, productive performance and carcass traits (ultrasound). We used 32 lambs with age of 3 months: 16 Santa Ines breed (8 males and 8 females) and 16 crossbred 7/8 Dorper x Santa Ines (8 males and 8 females). They were fed at an automated feed and water station (Intergado®), where the food and water intake by each animal was measured automatically. Residual water intake (RWI), residual feed intake (RFI) and residual body weight gain (RWG) were calculated using the MIXED procedure in SAS®. Correlation coefficients between total water intake (TWI), RWI and all traits (water measures, performance and carcass traits) were calculated using the CORR procedure (P ≤ 0.05). Total water intake showed mean 3.15 L/day during the study and the RWI ranged from 0.66 L to -0.89 L, which represents a difference of 1.55 L between the most and least efficient animal. There was positive correlation between less efficient animals in water consumption (positive RWI) and water intake (r = 0.31); total water intake in relation to dry matter intake (r = 0.36); total water intake in relation to mid-trial metabolic body weight (r = 0.26); residual feed and residual water intake (r = 0.99) and gain/feed ratio (r = 0.44). There was negative correlation between less efficient animal and dry matter intake in relation to body weight (r= -0.33) and feed conversion ratio (r= -0.44). The evaluation of the new variables, RWI and RFRWI, proved effective in identifying the most efficient animals in water use. Moreover, these findings open the possibility of considering the traits RWI and RFRWI in sheep selection, because performance and carcass traits are not adversely affected by selecting for these new traits.

Seasonal diets of Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) in the Khangchendzonga National Park, Eastern Himalaya India

ABSTRACT This study aimed to investigate the seasonal diet of the Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) using scat analysis in the Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP) and its surrounding. The study was carried out from 2017 to 2019 and 32 plant species were identified, along with animal matter from collected scats samples (n = 163). The identified food samples were placed into six categories: (i) vegetation (leaves of trees, shrubs, herbs and bamboo), (ii) hard mast (tree fruits and seeds), (iii) berries and soft mast (shrub fruits and seeds), (iv) agriculture and horticulture crops, (v) animal matter (insects & livestock), and (vi) unidentified items (roots, barks, twigs, etc.). The food preference of U. thibetanus comprises berries and succulent vegetation during the pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons, whereas hard mast was mostly preferred in the post-monsoon and winter seasons. The present study showed that the diet of U. thibetanus depends on the availability and propensities of food items, especially vegetation and hard mast trees in their habitat, in and around the KNP. The extensive cultivations of large cardamom (Amomum spp.) in the fringe villages of KNP are more abundant than the cultivation of other agriculture and horticulture crops. As a result, this may lead towards more crop-raiding by U. thibetanus and force the bears to move towards settlements to a greater extent. The findings of the present study may help in better understanding the feeding ecology of U. thibetanus for their effective conservation, and aid in the management of human-black bear conflicts in the Eastern Himalayas.

The occurrence of microplastics in gut contents of endemic barb Sahyadria chalakkudiensis (Menon, Rema Devi & Thobias, 1999) inhabiting river systems of Western Ghats, South India

Sahyadria chalakkudiensis, the endemic barb inhabiting rivers of Western Ghats, S. India has been supporting considerable aquarium trade and is known to dwell in upstream areas of these rivers. A concerted study on its feeding biology from 730 fishes has revealed consistent occurrence of microplastics in their guts, pointing to serious plastic pollution affecting riverine ecosystem. This fish has omnivorous feeding habit as evident from percentage index of relative indices of various prey items as animal matter (62%), filamentous algae (26%), sand particles (4%) and other matter (8%). Among other matter, microplastic fibres were consistently encountered in 86 guts (11.8% of total guts examined) collected in all months except September. The monthly occurrence of guts containing microplastic fibres showed significant correlation to guts containing filamentous algae (r=0.95, p

Characterization of Agropastoralist Production Systems and the Potential for Improving Livestock Productivity with Improved Feeding in Western Burkina Faso

The major constraint of livestock farming in Burkina Faso is the feed gap. This study aims to provide information on feed resources, availability, and uses in Bama's district. Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) was used to evaluate feed resources and to generate possible interventions. Focus groups were held and took into account 140 farmers, of which 90 were recalled for individual surveys. We found that the Bama district was characterized by agropastoral production systems in which crop provides 65.1% of household income whereas 23.9% was from livestock. Livestock feeding throughout the year depended on natural grazing. Natural pastures contributed most often to dry matter, metabolizable energy, and crude protein in animals' total diet, respectively, with 65.4, 64.4, and 61.5%. In addition to grazing, crop residues were collected after harvest to form a dietary supplement for the animals. The study also revealed nutritional gaps, and farmers were purchasing concentrates to compensate and ensure the best livestock productivity. The dominant complement purchased was cotton cake at a rate of 623.1 kg/year/household. None of the agropastoralists grew fodder crops. Identified interventions able to improve productivity and production of animals were supplementations with: a high-energy supplement (molasses); protein byproducts; pruning products, aerial parts, and leaf-stripping without sacrificing grain/tuber yields; cereal byproducts (rice bran, corn, wheat); multi-nutritional blocks; and commercially balanced feed. Given the food shortage, especially in the dry season, better management of food resources through the collection and conservation of fodder and the adoption of forage crops could increase feed availability.

Spatial Distribution and Dietary Niche Breadth of Leopard Cats (Prionailurus bengalensis) Inhabiting Margalla Hills National Park, Pakistan.

The leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) is distributed throughout the Himalayan foothills in Pakistan and occurs in moist temperate and dry coniferous forests. However, the cat species is categorized as "Data Deficient" in Pakistan. In the current study we aimed to investigate the leopard cat distribution and dietary niche in the Margalla Hills National Park, the lowest part of the Himalayan foothills in Pakistan. We recorded direct (field observations, camera trapping) and indirect signs (scats) of the species on 23 trails /tracks in the study area. The leopard cat was recorded at 13 different sampling sites in the park, with an altitudinal range between 664-1441 m asl. The diet composition of the species was investigated through scat analysis, with the species identity of the scats confirmed through the mitochondrial cytB region. The species' diet comprised both animal and plant matter. The animal-based diet (in terms of frequency of occurrence) contained wild (51.75%) as well as domestic prey (7.69%), and plant species (31.47%). Wild prey included small mammals (rodents, two mongoose species, Asian palm squirrel, and Cape hare), birds, insects and snails. The domestic prey were poultry birds, sheep, goats and dogs. Consumption of wild prey was higher in summer (n = 31 scat), whereas intake of domestic prey was higher in winter (n = 37 scats). The dietary niche breadth was wider 14.84 in summer than winter 10.67. A chi-square test showed a significant difference in seasonal dietary intake of the leopard cat. The study concludes that the leopard cat feeds mainly on wild animal prey and plant species; however, in winter consumption of domestic prey increases.

A History of Molecular Level Analysis of Natural Organic Matter by FTICR Mass Spectrometry and The Paradigm Shift in Organic Geochemistry.

Natural organic matter (NOM) is a complex mixture of biogenic molecules resulting from the deposition and transformation of plant and animal matter. It has long been recognized that NOM plays an important role in many geological, geochemical, and environmental processes. Of particular concern is the fate of NOM in response to a warming climate in environments that have historically sequestered carbon (e.g., peatlands and swamps) but may transition to net carbon emitters. In this review, we will highlight developments in the application of high-field Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR MS) in identifying the individual components of complex NOM mixtures, focusing primarily on the fraction that is dissolved in natural waters (dissolved organic matter or DOM). We will first provide some historical perspective on developments in FTICR technology that made molecular-level characterizations of DOM possible. A variety of applications of the technique will then be described, followed by our view of the future of high-field FTICR MS in carbon cycling research, including a particularly exciting metabolomic approach.

Animal-borne video reveals atypical behaviour in provisioned green turtles: A global perspective of a widespread tourist activity

Feeding wildlife as a tourist activity is a growing industry around the world. However, providing alternative food sources can affect wildlife ecology and behaviour. In this study, we combined animal-borne cameras on five sub-adult green turtles (Chelonia mydas) from the Bahamas with a global review to directly assess impacts of provisioning on the behaviour of an endangered marine species for the first time. Descriptive evidence from video footage, with videos included in the manuscript, showed that the tagged turtles spent 86% of their time in shallow water (<1.5 m) at a provisioning site. All individuals observed, both tagged and untagged, actively approached people and boats, with up to 10 turtles recorded feeding on squid offered by tourists at one time. During these feeding events, multiple accounts of atypical aggressive behaviour such as biting and ramming conspecifics were recorded. Furthermore, a review of online sources revealed the widespread significance of turtle feeding as a tourist activity in at least 20 locations within the global range of green sea turtles, as well as five locations with regular provisioning of either loggerhead (Caretta Caretta) or hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbracata) turtles. At the majority of the locations, turtles were fed animal matter such as fish scraps and squid. Although sample size limited quantitative analyses, we found indications of relatively high growth rates of two tagged turtles and low seagrass intake rates of all five tagged turtles. Therefore, our results emphasize the need to further investigate the impacts of turtle provisioning on natural foraging behaviour, ecosystem functioning as well as turtle growth rates and health implications. Supplemental feeding may increase habituation and dependency of turtles on humans with risks for turtle conservation. The innovative use of animal-borne camera technology may provide novel insights to behavioural consequences of human-wildlife interactions that can aid in the management and conservation of rare or endangered species.

Foraging and Spatial Ecology of a Polydomous Carpenter Ant, Camponotus leydigi (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), in Tropical Cerrado Savanna: A Natural History Account.

Carpenter ants (genus Camponotus) are considered to be predominantly omnivorous, mixing several feeding habits that include predation, scavenging of animal matter, and plant-derived resources. Nitrogen acquisition is crucial for the nutritional ecology of ant colonies because growing larvae require sustainable protein provisioning. Here, we investigate the foraging ecology and the spatial nesting structure of the carpenter ant, Camponotus leydigi Forel, in Brazilian cerrado savanna. By marking workers from different nests with distinct colors, we revealed that C. leydigi occupies physically separated but socially connected nests (up to 30 m apart), a phenomenon known as polydomy. Observational data on aboveground internest movements in C. leydigi corroborate cooperative exchanges between nest units and confirm several types of social connections, including internest transfer of liquid and solid food, transport of colony members (brood, workers), movement of solitary workers, and internest recruitment. Polydomous C. leydigi allocate foragers throughout 1,700 m2, feeding mostly on termites and plant-derived exudates. Influx of exudates is threefold higher compared with solid food. Uric acid pellets excreted by lizards comprise 20% of the solid diet in C. leydigi, a rare quantitative assessment of this peculiar type of nitrogen complementation in ants. Based on video recordings, we hypothesize that nest decentralization in C. leydigi may reduce foraging constraints caused by overt interference by the aggressive ant, Ectatomma brunneum Smith, F. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), which regularly blocks nest entrances. Our field study enhances the importance of natural history data to clarify selective pressures underlying the evolution of particular behavioral patterns (nutritional and nesting habits) in ants.

EVALUATION OF FEEDING INDICES TO ANALYSE THE FOOD PREFERENCE AND FEEDING RATE OF MACROBRACHIUM ASSAMENSE PENINSULARE (TIWARI, 1958) FROM RAWASAN STREAM OF GARHWAL, CENTRAL HIMALAYA, INDIA

In this paper the feeding index (FI), Gastro somatic index (GaSI) and Food Prevalence Index (FPI) of freshwater prawn Macrobrachium assamense peninsulare were evaluated to assess the quantity and quality of food preferred by it in the Rawasan stream. A total of 401 prawns were collected during a span of two years from five selected sites in the Rawasan stream of Garhwal in Central Himalaya, India from August 2013 to July 2015. Collected prawns were in the size range of 20-75 mm in males and 24-65 mm in females in total length. The stomach contents of 10 collected specimens were examined monthly and observed that 35% of the stomach was full or semifull and 15% stomach were empty. The highest Gastro somatic value was obtained 2.95±0.80 during June in the male and 3.25±0.44 during May in the female. After that, it gradually decreased in both the sexes and is repeated in cyclic patterns each year. More or less a similar trend was reported in the feeding index value during the study which indicates a significant relationship between feeding intensity and Gastro somatic index. The highest Food Prevalence Index (FPI) was seen as fragments of animal matter in both sexes, which was (88.48) in male and (58.26) in female prawns and the lowest FPI value was sand and debris (7.9 and 5.7) in male and female prawn respectively. The main food items were the fragment of plants as well as animals, diatoms, algae, and sand. Overall, the results show that this prawn is selectively abstemious.

Auditory and Visual System White Matter Is Differentially Impacted by Normative Aging in Macaques.

Deficits in auditory and visual processing are commonly encountered by older individuals. In addition to the relatively well described age-associated pathologies that reduce sensory processing at the level of the cochlea and eye, multiple changes occur along the ascending auditory and visual pathways that further reduce sensory function in each domain. One fundamental question that remains to be directly addressed is whether the structure and function of the central auditory and visual systems follow similar trajectories across the lifespan or sustain the impacts of brain aging independently. The present study used diffusion magnetic resonance imaging and electrophysiological assessments of auditory and visual system function in adult and aged macaques to better understand how age-related changes in white matter connectivity at multiple levels of each sensory system might impact auditory and visual function. In particular, the fractional anisotropy (FA) of auditory and visual system thalamocortical and interhemispheric corticocortical connections was estimated using probabilistic tractography analyses. Sensory processing and sensory system FA were both reduced in older animals compared with younger adults. Corticocortical FA was significantly reduced only in white matter of the auditory system of aged monkeys, while thalamocortical FA was lower only in visual system white matter of the same animals. Importantly, these structural alterations were significantly associated with sensory function within each domain. Together, these results indicate that age-associated deficits in auditory and visual processing emerge in part from microstructural alterations to specific sensory white matter tracts, and not from general differences in white matter condition across the aging brain.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Age-associated deficits in sensory processing arise from structural and functional alterations to both peripheral sensory organs and central brain regions. It remains unclear whether different sensory systems undergo similar or distinct trajectories in function across the lifespan. To provide novel insights into this question, this study combines electrophysiological assessments of auditory and visual function with diffusion MRI in aged macaques. The results suggest that age-related sensory processing deficits in part result from factors that impact the condition of specific white matter tracts, and not from general decreases in connectivity between sensory brain regions. Such anatomic specificity argues for a framework aimed at understanding vulnerabilities with relatively local influence and brain region specificity.

Histochemical changes in Piper nigrum Linn leaves infected with galls caused by Diptera

Piper Linn. (Black pepper) belongs to the family Piperaceae and an economically and medicinally important spice and is a native of Southern India. The gall tissues have shown various structural and physiological changes in the host tissues. The normal and gall tissue showed differential in terms of the metabolites and enzymes. The Diptera comprises a large group of insects including the common flies, mosquitoes, gnats and midges are by the position of only the pair of wings. Some of them are , others feed on nectar or plant sap and decaying animal and vegetable matter and few others are blood sucking. When feeding on plant tissues these insects and mites inject or secrete a chemical substance into the plant that causes the plant to grow abnormally and produce a gall. Stimulus for gall formation is usually provided by the feeding stage of the insect. in the gall as until the completion and maturity of their life stages and emerges from the exit holes. present investigation, The intensity of starch, cellulose, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, lignin, and the viz. acid , and oxidase was observed in diseased leaf of Piper and estimated and the results have been discussed in the light of , induced by Diptera.

Functional analysis of sandstone ground stone\xa0tools: arguments for a qualitative and quantitative synergetic approach

In the last few years, the application of quantitative methods in the field of use wear analysis has grown considerably, involving the use of different techniques. A development in surface measurements approaches has become necessary as standard assessments based upon qualitative functional analysis are often affected by a degree of subjectivity and a limited reproducibility. To advance the current methodological debate on functional analysis of ground stone technology, we present a combined methodological approach, including qualitative and quantitative analyses, applied to the study of experimental sandstone ground stone tools. We test surface quantification at a macro and micro-scale, paired with the observation and description of residue and use wear connected to the processing of plant, animal and mineral matters. Our results provide an exhaustive quantitative dataset concerning surface modifications associated with different uses and suggest an analytical workflow for the functional analysis of both experimental and archaeological ground stone assemblages. We also highlight the limitation and pitfalls of an exclusive adoption of quantitative methods in the study of ancient tool use demonstrating how a synergetic approach can enhance the quality, reproducibility and comparability of functional data.

Feeding ecology of the endemic freshwater puffer fish Carinotetradon travancoricus (Hora & Nair, 1941) in Western Ghats hotspot, India

The study aimed to investigate the feeding ecology of a vulnerable freshwater puffer fish, Carinotetradon travancoricus from the Chalakudy river of Kerala, Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot of India. Fishes were sampled from October 2018 to September 2019. Stomach condition of the fishes showed the percentage of empty gut to be significantly higher during all seasons ( P < 0.01). Feeding intensity depicted the fish to follow an ‘active’ feeding strategy (31.59±10.32%) during pre-monsoon season. Diet composition and relative length of gut analysis indicated that the fish during its early stages relied on an omnivorous diet however preferring autochthonous food materials such as insects (27.91%) and crustaceans (25.30%) during its adult stages. A perceptible variation in the feeding strategy associated with the spawning season of C. travancoricus was also noticed. During their spawning season (May-August), a greater preponderance towards animal matter (52.18%) was noticed in their diet. The results of gastrosomatic index indicated that feeding activity of C. travancoricus is considerably reduced (2.99) during the spawning period. The present study provides the baseline information on the feeding ecology of C. travancoricus which could be helpful to aquarists for breeding and rearing of this species in captivity and thereby reducing their fishing pressure in wild.

Feeding Ecology of Pachypterus atherinoides (Actinopterygii; Siluriformes; Schilbeidae): A Small Freshwater Fish from Floodplain Wetlands of Northeast India

Abstract The feeding ecology of Pachypterus atherinoides was investigated for two consecutive years (2013-2015) from floodplain wetlands in the Subansiri river basin of Assam, North East India. The analysis of its gut content revealed the presence of 62 genera of planktonic life forms along with other animal matters. The organization of the alimentary tract and maximum Relative Mean Length of Gut (0.511±0.029 mm) indicated its carnivorous food habit. The peak gastro-somatic index (GSI) in winter-spring seasons and summer-rainy seasons indicated alteration of its feeding intensity. Furthermore, higher diet breadth on resource use (Levins’ and Hurlbert’s) with zooplankton compared to phytoplankton and total plankton confirmed its zooplanktivore habit. The feeding strategy plots also suggested greater preference to zooplankton compared to phytoplankton. The organization of its gill rakers specified a secondary modification of gut towards either carnivory or specialized zooplanktivory. So, the fish may be a carni-omnivore with preference to zooplankton.

Environmental friendly synthesis of natural dyes and pigments

Natural dyes comprise those colorants (dyes and pigment) that are obtained from vegetable, animal or mineral matters without chemical processing. These dyes are used in coloration of textiles, food, drugs and cosmetics. Small quantities of dyes are also used in coloration of paper, leather, shoe polish, wood, cane, candles and such other products requiring coloration. This article attempts to reviews the chemical constitutions of natural dyes and discussed about the available colour shades of natural dyes.

Feeding Damage to Native Plants by Red-eared Slider Turtles, Trachemys scripta elegans (Emydidae), in Okayama Prefecture, Western Japan

The omnivorous, red-eared slider (RES) turtle, Trachemys scripta elegans (Emydidae), is an alien species introduced to Japan from North America. Young RES mainly eat animal matter, but shift to a diet that includes plants as they grow. In recent years, feeding damage by RES to crops, other cultivated plants and endangered plants has been reported in Japan. Few case studies, however, have focused on the feeding damage by this species to Japanese wild plants. Our study therefore aimed to quantify the feeding damage to Japanese wild plants by RES by comparing data on plants available in their habitat to the stomach contents of the turtles. From April to December, 2018, and April to November, 2019, we captured RES at three ponds in Okayama Prefecture, Japan, during two days each month. A total of 39 individual turtles (14 males and 25 females) were captured using basket traps in the ponds. A total of 35 families, 60 genera and 74 species of vascular plants and algae were found in the ponds. The stomach contents of adult RES from the three ponds contained more plant matter, including algae (71%), than animal matter (29%), confirming previous reports. The stomach contents also included Japanese native plants (Tamasu pond: 63%, Narazu pond: 40%, Sayama pond: 57%, with the total contents of all three ponds being 56%). The findings indicate that Japanese native plant species are included in the diet of the RES.