Animal Caretakers Research Articles

Suicides and deaths of undetermined intent among veterinary professionals from 2003 through 2014.

To analyze data for death of veterinary professionals and veterinary students, with manner of death characterized as suicide or undetermined intent from 2003 through 2014. Death records for 202 veterinary professionals and veterinary students. Decedents employed as veterinarians, veterinary technicians or technologists, or veterinary assistants or laboratory animal caretakers and veterinary students who died by suicide or of undetermined intent were identified through retrospective review of National Violent Death Reporting System records. Standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) and 95% confidence intervals were calculated, and mechanisms and circumstances of death were compared among veterinary occupational groups. 197 veterinary professionals and 5 veterinary students had deaths by suicide or of undetermined intent. Among decedents employed at the time of death, SMRs for suicide of male and female veterinarians (1.6 and 2.4, respectively) and male and female veterinary technicians or technologists (5.0 and 2.3, respectively) were significantly greater than those for the general US population, whereas SMRs for suicide of male and female veterinary assistants or laboratory animal caretakers were not. Poisoning was the most common mechanism of death among veterinarians; the drug most commonly used was pentobarbital. For most (13/18) veterinarians who died of pentobarbital poisoning, the death-related injury occurred at home. When decedents with pentobarbital poisoning were excluded from analyses, SMRs for suicide of male and female veterinarians, but not veterinary technicians or technologists, did not differ significantly from results for the general population. Results suggested higher SMRs for suicide among veterinarians might be attributable to pentobarbital access. Improving administrative controls for pentobarbital might be a promising suicide prevention strategy among veterinarians; however, different strategies are likely needed for veterinary technicians or technologists.

Evaluation of EPAS1 variants for association with bovine congestive heart failure

Background: Bovine congestive heart failure (BCHF) has become increasingly prevalent in feedlot cattle in the Western Great Plains of North America. BCHF is an untreatable complex condition involving pulmonary hypertension that culminates in right ventricular failure and death. A protein variant of hypoxia-inducible factor 2 alpha (HIF2α, encoded by the endothelial PAS domain-containing protein 1 gene, EPAS1) was previously reported to be associated with pulmonary hypertension at altitudes exceeding 2,000 m. Our aim was to evaluate EPAS1 haplotypes for association with BCHF in feedlot cattle raised at moderate altitudes (1,200 m). Methods: Paired samples of clinical cases and unaffected controls were collected at four feedlots in Nebraska and Wyoming. Each pair (n =102) was matched for source, pen, breed type, sex, arrival date, and management conditions. Cases were identified by animal caretakers, euthanized, and diagnosis was confirmed at necropsy. Cases were derived from 30 different ranch operations, with the largest source contributing 32. Animals were tested for eight EPAS1 haplotypes encoding 36 possible different diploid combinations. Results: The common, ancestral EPAS1 haplotype encoding HIF2α with alanine (A) at position 606 and glycine (G) at position 610 was equally frequent in cases and controls (0.67). The EPAS1 variant haplotype reported to be associated with disease (encoding threonine (T) at position 606 and serine (S) at position 610) was not enriched in cases compared with controls (0.21 and 0.25, respectively). Frequencies of other EPAS1 haplotypes (e.g., encoding Q270, L362, or G671) were each less than 0.05 overall. McNemar’s test with 45 discordant pairs showed the linked T606/S610 variant was not associated with BCHF (OR = 0.73, CI 95 0.38 -1.4, p-value = 0.37). Conclusions: HIF2α polypeptide variants were not significantly associated with BCHF in feedlot cattle at moderate altitudes. Thus, a wider search is needed to identify genetic risk factors underlying this disease.

Evaluation of EPAS1 variants for association with bovine congestive heart failure.

Background: Bovine congestive heart failure (BCHF) has become increasingly prevalent in feedlot cattle in the Western Great Plains of North America. BCHF is an untreatable complex condition involving pulmonary hypertension that culminates in right ventricular failure and death. A protein variant of hypoxia-inducible factor 2 alpha (HIF2α, encoded by the endothelial PAS domain-containing protein 1 gene, EPAS1) was previously reported to be associated with pulmonary hypertension at altitudes exceeding 2,000 m. Our aim was to evaluate EPAS1 haplotypes for association with BCHF in feedlot cattle raised at moderate altitudes (1,200 m). Methods: Paired samples of clinical cases and unaffected controls were collected at four feedlots in Nebraska and Wyoming. Each pair (n =102) was matched for source, pen, breed type, sex, arrival date, and management conditions. Cases were identified by animal caretakers, euthanized, and diagnosis was confirmed at necropsy. Cases were derived from 30 different ranch operations, with the largest source contributing 32. Animals were tested for eight EPAS1 haplotypes encoding 36 possible different diploid combinations. Results: The common, ancestral EPAS1 haplotype encoding HIF2α with alanine (A) at position 606 and glycine (G) at position 610 was equally frequent in cases and controls (0.67). The EPAS1 variant haplotype reported to be associated with disease (encoding threonine (T) at position 606 and serine (S) at position 610) was not enriched in cases compared with controls (0.21 and 0.25, respectively). Frequencies of other EPAS1 haplotypes (e.g., encoding Q270, L362, or G671) were each less than 0.05 overall. McNemar's test with 45 discordant pairs showed the linked T606/S610 variant was not associated with BCHF (OR = 0.73, CI 95 0.38 -1.4, p-value = 0.37). Conclusions: HIF2α polypeptide variants were not significantly associated with BCHF in feedlot cattle at moderate altitudes. Thus, a wider search is needed to identify genetic risk factors underlying this disease.

Assessment of environmental and occupational exposure while working with multidrug resistant (MDR) fungus Candida auris in an animal facility

In less than a decade since its identification in 2009, the emerging fungal pathogen Candida auris has become a major public health threat due to its multidrug resistant (MDR) phenotype, high transmissibility, and high mortality. Unlike other Candida species, C. auris has acquired high levels of resistance to an already limited arsenal of antifungals. As an emerging pathogen, there are currently a limited number of documented murine models of C. auris infection. These animal models use inoculums as high as 107–108 cells per mouse, and the environmental and occupational exposure of working with these models has not been clearly defined. Using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and culture, we monitored the animal holding room as well as the procedure room for up to 6 months while working with an intravenous model of C. auris infection. This study determined that shedding of the organism is dose-dependent, as detectable levels of C. auris were detected in the cage bedding when mice were infected with 107 and 108 cells, but not with doses of 105 and 106 cells. Autoclaving bedding in closed micro-isolator cages was found to be an effective way to minimize exposure for animal caretakers. We found that tissue necropsies of infected mice were also an important source of potential source exposure to C. auris. To mitigate these potential exposures, we implemented a rigorous “buddy system” workflow and a disinfection protocol that uses 10% bleach followed by 70% ethanol and can be used in any animal facility when using small animal models of C. auris infection.

The AVMA's definitions of antimicrobial uses for prevention, control, and treatment of disease.

Recent state and federal legislative actions and current recommendations from the World Health Organization seem to suggest that, when it comes to antimicrobial stewardship, use of antimicrobials for prevention, control, or treatment of disease can be ranked in order of appropriateness, which in turn has led, in some instances, to attempts to limit or specifically oppose the routine use of medically important antimicrobials for prevention of disease. In contrast, the AVMA Committee on Antimicrobials believes that attempts to evaluate the degree of antimicrobial stewardship on the basis of therapeutic intent are misguided and that use of antimicrobials for prevention, control, or treatment of disease may comply with the principles of antimicrobial stewardship. It is important that veterinarians and animal caretakers are clear about the reason they may be administering antimicrobials to animals in their care. Concise definitions of prevention, control, and treatment of individuals and populations are necessary to avoid confusion and to help veterinarians clearly communicate their intentions when prescribing or recommending antimicrobial use.

Analysis of exotic squirrel trade and detection of human infections with variegated squirrel bornavirus 1, Germany, 2005 to 2018.

Following the discovery in 2015 of the variegated squirrel bornavirus 1 (VSBV-1) in fatal encephalitis cases among exotic squirrel breeders and a zoo animal caretaker in Germany, a case definition was developed. It was employed during trace-back animal trade investigations and sero-epidemiological studies among breeders and zoo animal caretakers of holdings with VSBV-1 infected squirrels. During the investigation, two possible human cases who had died of encephalitis were identified retrospectively among the squirrel breeders. Moreover, one probable human case was detected among the breeders who had a positive memory T-cell response to VSBV-1 antigen and antibodies against VSBV-1. The low rate of seropositivity found among living persons in risk groups that handle exotic squirrels privately or at zoos may reflect rareness of exposure to VSBV-1 during animal contact, a high lethality of infection or a combination of these factors. As a precaution against human exposure, testing of exotic squirrels for VSBV-1 infection and/or avoiding direct contact with exotic squirrels in zoos and private holdings is strongly advised.

Development of a behavioural welfare assessment tool for routine use with captive elephants.

There has been much concern in recent years about the welfare of elephants in zoos across North America and Europe. While some previous studies have assessed captive elephant welfare at a particular point in time, there has been little work to develop methods which could be used for regular, routine welfare assessment. Such assessment is important in order to track changes in welfare over time. A welfare assessment tool should be rapid, reliable, and simple to complete, without requiring specialist training and facilities; welfare assessments based on behavioural observations are well suited to this purpose. This report describes the development of a new elephant behavioural welfare assessment tool designed for routine use by elephant keepers. Tool development involved: (i) identification of behavioural indicators of welfare from the literature and from focus groups with relevant stakeholders; (ii) development of a prototype tool; (iii) testing of the tool at five UK zoological institutions, involving 29 elephants (representing 46% of the total UK captive elephant population of 63 animals); (iv) assessment of feasibility and reliability of aspects of the prototype tool; (v) assessment of the validity of each element of the tool to reflect the relevant behaviour by comparing detailed behavioural observations with data from the prototype tool; (vi) assessment of known-groups criterion validity by comparing prototype tool scores in individuals with demographics associated with better or worse welfare; (vii) development of a finalised tool which incorporated all elements of the tool which met the criteria set for validity and reliability. Elements of the tool requiring further consideration are discussed, as are considerations for appropriate application and interpretation of scores. This novel behavioural welfare assessment tool can be used by elephant-holding facilities for routine behavioural welfare monitoring, which can inform adjustments to individual welfare plans for each elephant in their collection, to help facilities further assess and improve captive elephant welfare. This study provides an example of how an evidence-based behavioural welfare assessment tool for use by animal caretakers can be developed within the constraints of zoo-based research, which could be applied to a range of captive species.

The Likelihood of Misidentifying Rodent Pasteurellaceae by Using Results from a Single PCR Assay.

The precise identification of rodent Pasteurellaceae is known to be highly challenging. An unknown strain of Pasteurellaceae appeared and rapidly spread throughout our animal facilities. Standard microbiology, combined with biochemical analysis, suggested that the bacteria strain was Rodentibacter pneumotropicus or R. heylii. We submitted samples of the unknown bacteria and known isolates of R. pneumotropicus, R. heylii, and Muribacter muris, to 2 service laboratories that provide animal health monitoring. Results of microbiology tests performed by both laboratories, species-specific PCR analysis performed by one laboratory, and independent 16S rRNA gene sequencing yielded identical identification of the unknown bacteria as Pasteurellaceae (Pasteurella spp.) and not R. pneumotropicus or R. heylii. In contrast, the similarly intended PCR assay performed by the other laboratory identified the bacteria as R. heylii. Careful evaluation of all of the results led us to conclude that the correct identification of the bacteria is Pasteurellaceae. From our experience, we recommend that a combination of several methods should be used to achieve correct identification of rodent Pasteurellaceae. Specifically, we advise that all primer sets used should be disclosed when reporting PCR test results, including in health reports provided by service laboratories and animal vendors. Careful, correct, and informative health monitoring reports are most beneficial to animal researchers and caretakers who might encounter the presence and effects of rodent Pasteurellaceae.

A review of aetiology and risk factors affecting sow mortality.

Abstract Sow-mortality rates in the US breeding herds have been increasing in recent years. Based on reports in the scientific literature, sow-mortality rates started increasing by the mid- to late-1990s. This reality continues to be documented through database evaluation and reports from herd managers and producers. These trends are a clear challenge to herd veterinarians and producers in the swine industry in the USA and many other countries around the world. Sow-mortality challenges are complex issues with multiple risk factors. This review covers reported incidences of increasing sow mortality, as well as aetiologies and risk factors associated with sow mortality occurring in the modern lean-type sow. Gastro-intestinal, heart and locomotive problems, cystitis-pyelonephritis (inflammation of the urinary bladder and kidney), reproductive failure, prolapses and additional disorders are consistently reported as common aetiologies for sow mortality. Information on related risk factors such as population, sow housing, reproductive stage and health status lead efforts to define and resolve sow mortality. Increasing sow mortality could well be taken as an indictment of modern production systems, of the genetically improved sows, or the knowledge and actions of animal caretakers. Prompt resolution of sow mortality is of critical importance and is a public expectation with respect to the ethical treatment and care of production food animals.

Klebsiella pneumoniae causing urinary tract infections in companion animals and humans: population structure, antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes.

To characterize the population structure, antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes of Klebsiella spp. isolated from dogs, cats and humans with urinary tract infections (UTIs). Klebsiella spp. from companion animals (n = 27) and humans (n = 77) with UTI were tested by the disc diffusion method against 29 antimicrobials. Resistant/intermediate isolates were tested by PCR for 16 resistance genes. Seven virulence genes were screened for by PCR. All Klebsiella pneumoniae from companion animals and third-generation cephalosporin (3GC)-resistant isolates from humans were typed by MLST. All Klebsiella spp. were compared after PFGE XbaI macro-restriction using Dice/UPGMA with 1.5% tolerance. bla CTX-M-15 was detected in >80% of 3GC-resistant strains. K. pneumoniae high-risk clonal lineage ST15 predominated in companion animal isolates (60%, n = 15/25). Most companion animal ST15 K. pneumoniae belonged to two PFGE clusters (C4, C5) that also included human strains. Companion animal and human ST15-CTX-M-15 K. pneumoniae shared a fimH-1/mrkD/entB/ycfM/kfu virulence profile, with a few (n = 4) also harbouring the yersiniabactin siderophore-encoding genes. The hospital-adapted ST11 K. pneumoniae clonal lineage was detected in a cat (n = 1) and a human (n = 1); both were MDR, had 81.1% Dice/UPGMA similarity and shared several virulence and resistance genes. Two 3GC-resistant ST348 strains with 86.7% Dice/UPGMA similarity were isolated from a cat and a human. Companion animals with UTI become infected with high-risk K. pneumoniae clonal lineages harbouring resistance and virulence genes similar to those detected in strains from humans. The ST15-CTX-M-15 K. pneumoniae clonal lineage was disseminated in companion animals with UTI. Caution must be applied by companion animal caretakers to avoid the spread of K. pneumoniae high-risk clonal lineages.

Captive wildlife from India as carriers of Shiga toxin-producing, Enteropathogenic and Enterotoxigenic <i>Escherichia coli</i>

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), and Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) make up an important group of pathogens causing major animal and public health concerns worldwide. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of different pathotypes of E. coli in captive wildlife. We analyzed 314 fresh fecal samples from captive wildlife, 30 stool swabs from animal caretakers, and 26 feed and water samples collected from various zoological gardens and enclosures in India for the isolation of E. coli, followed by pathotyping by multiplex PCR. The overall occurrence rate of E. coli was 74.05% (274/370). The 274 E. coli isolates were pathotyped by multiplex PCR targeting 6 genes. Of them, 5.83% were pathotyped as EPEC, 4.74% as STEC, and 1.09% as ETEC. The 16S rRNA genes from the selected isolates were amplified, sequenced, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed. The phylogenetic tree exhibited indiscriminate genetic profiling and some isolates from captive wild animals had 100% genetic identity with isolates from caretakers, suggesting that captive wildlife may serve as a reservoir for infection in humans and vice-versa. The present study demonstrates for the first time the prevalence of these E. coli pathotypes in captive wildlife in India. Our study suggests that atypical EPEC strains are more frequent than typical EPEC strains in captive wildlife. Discovering the implications of the prevalence of these pathotypes in wildlife conservation is a challenging topic to be addressed by further investigations.

Using Clicker Training and Social Observation to Teach Rats to Voluntarily Change Cages.

Cage cleaning is a routinely performed husbandry procedure and is known to induce stress in laboratory rats. As stress can have a negative impact on well-being and can affect the comparability and reproducibility of research results, the amount of stress experienced by laboratory animals should be minimized and avoided when possible. Further, the direct contact between the rat and animal caretaker during the cage change bears hygiene risks and therefore possibly negatively impacts the well-being of the rats and the quality of the research. Our protocol aims to improve the routinely performed cage changing procedure. For this reason, we present a feasible protocol that enables rats to learn via clicker training and observation to voluntarily change to a clean cage. This training helps to reduce stress caused by the physical disturbance and handling associated with the cage changes and concurrently enables a reduction in direct contact between animal and animal caretaker after the training phase is completed. The implementation of clicker training to rats is fast and easy. Rats are generally interested in the training and efficiently learn the desired behavior, which entails changing cages through a pipe. Even without training, the rats learn to perform the desired behavior by observation, as 80% of the observational learning group successfully changed cages when tested. The training further helps to establish a relationship of trust between trainer and animal. As hygiene and well-being are both very important in animal experiments, this protocol might also help to improve high-quality research.

Facial display and blushing: Means of visual communication in blue-and-yellow macaws (Ara Ararauna)?

Mainly recognized for their cognitive performance, the visual communication system and, particularly, the potential function of facial displays in parrots remain thus far unexplored. Here, we provide the first descriptive study of facial display use in captive blue-and-yellow macaws. We observed the feather position (sleeked or ruffled) on the crown, nape and cheek at the group level during the macaws’ daily routine and individually while interacting with a familiar animal caretaker. In the latter context, blushing was also assessed on the bare skin of the cheek. Group level observations showed that crown, nape and cheek feathers ruffling was more frequent in activities requiring no locomotion than in activities requiring locomotion. With the animal caretaker, crown ruffling was significantly more frequent when the caretaker was actively engaging with the parrot than during a control phase with no mutual interaction. In addition, a significantly higher proportion of naïve observers judged blushing as being present on photographs taken during the mutual interaction phase than during the control phase. We thus showed significant variations in facial displays and bare skin colour based on the birds’ social context and activity. Our results broaden the scope for further studies to determine whether parrots’ faces provide visual social signals.

New host shift from human to cows within Staphylococcus aureus involved in bovine mastitis and nasal carriage of animal's caretakers

Staphylococcus aureus is a commensal and pathogen of both humans and bovines. While the epidemiology of both groups has been extensively studied individually, little is known about the potential zoonotic transfer from animal strains to human being and vice versa. To determine the S. aureus prevalence of bovine mastitis in Algeria and the zoonotic transfer of strains to human beings, mastitis milk samples were collected, and professionals in a close contact with bovines were nasal swabbed. S. aureus isolates were all characterized by methicillin resistance and spa-typing. DNA microarrays analysis was performed on a subset of strains in order to detect other virulence factors, including toxins, and to assign the isolates to theirs MLST clonal complexes. Overall, 116/222 (52.3%) cows suffered from mastitis, whose 38.8% (45/116) infected with S. aureus. Human nasal carriage was of 38% (49/129), with only 4 MRSA carriers (3.1%). A higher diversity of spa-types was observed in human (35/50) than in bovine (18/67) isolates, with a predominance of clonal complexes CC97 and CC22 in bovines. The typical animal clone CC97 was occasionally detected in human beings. Conversely, the CC22 S. aureus clone largely switched from humans to bovines. Our study highlights the potential dynamics of animal and human S. aureus strains in the farm environment in Algeria, which may represent a health threat in both populations.

Serotype Diversity and Antimicrobial Resistance among Salmonella enterica Isolates from Patients at an Equine Referral Hospital.

Although Salmonella enterica can produce life-threatening colitis in horses, certain serotypes are more commonly associated with clinical disease. Our aim was to evaluate the proportional morbidity attributed to different serotypes, as well as the phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of Salmonella isolates from patients at an equine referral hospital in the southern United States. A total of 255 Salmonella isolates was obtained from clinical samples of patients admitted to the hospital between 2007 and 2015. Phenotypic resistance to 14 antibiotics surveilled by the U.S. National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System was determined using a commercially available panel. Whole-genome sequencing was used to identify serotypes and genotypic AMR. The most common serotypes were Salmonella enterica serotype Newport (18%), Salmonella enterica serotype Anatum (15.2%), and Salmonella enterica serotype Braenderup (11.8%). Most (n = 219) of the isolates were pansusceptible, while 25 were multidrug resistant (≥3 antimicrobial classes). Genes encoding beta-lactam resistance, such as blaCMY-2, blaSHV-12, blaCTX-M-27, and blaTEM-1B, were detected. The qnrB2 and aac(6')-Ib-cr genes were present in isolates with reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin. Genes encoding resistance to gentamicin (aph(3')-Ia, aac(6')-IIc), streptomycin (strA and strB), sulfonamides (sul1), trimethoprim (dfrA), phenicols (catA), tetracyclines [tet(A) and tet(E)], and macrolides [ere(A)] were also identified. The main predicted incompatibility plasmid type was I1 (10%). Core genome-based analyses revealed phylogenetic associations between isolates of common serotypes. The presence of AMR Salmonella in equine patients increases the risk of unsuccessful treatment and causes concern for potential zoonotic transmission to attending veterinary personnel, animal caretakers, and horse owners. Understanding the epidemiology of Salmonella in horses admitted to referral hospitals is important for the prevention, control, and treatment of salmonellosis.IMPORTANCE In horses, salmonellosis is a leading cause of life-threatening colitis. At veterinary teaching hospitals, nosocomial outbreaks can increase the risk of zoonotic transmission, lead to restrictions on admissions, impact hospital reputation, and interrupt educational activities. The antimicrobials most often used in horses are included in the 5th revision of the World Health Organization's list of critically important antimicrobials for human medicine. Recent studies have demonstrated a trend of increasing bacterial resistance to drugs commonly used to treat Salmonella infections. In this study, we identify temporal trends in the distribution of Salmonella serotypes and their mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance; furthermore, we are able to determine the likely origin of several temporal clusters of infection by using whole-genome sequencing. These data can be used to focus strategies to better contain the dissemination and enhance the mitigation of Salmonella infections and to provide evidence-based policies and guidelines to steward antimicrobial use in veterinary medicine.

Occupation-Associated Fatal Limbic Encephalitis Caused by Variegated Squirrel Bornavirus 1, Germany, 2013.

Limbic encephalitis is commonly regarded as an autoimmune-mediated disease. However, after the recent detection of zoonotic variegated squirrel bornavirus 1 in a Prevost's squirrel (Callosciurus prevostii) in a zoo in northern Germany, we retrospectively investigated a fatal case in an autoantibody-seronegative animal caretaker who had worked at that zoo. The virus had been discovered in 2015 as the cause of a cluster of cases of fatal encephalitis among breeders of variegated squirrels (Sciurus variegatoides) in eastern Germany. Molecular assays and immunohistochemistry detected a limbic distribution of the virus in brain tissue of the animal caretaker. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated a spillover infection from the Prevost's squirrel. Antibodies against bornaviruses were detected in the patient's cerebrospinal fluid by immunofluorescence and newly developed ELISAs and immunoblot. The putative antigenic epitope was identified on the viral nucleoprotein. Other zoo workers were not infected; however, avoidance of direct contact with exotic squirrels and screening of squirrels are recommended.

Research progress on the role of melatonin and its receptors in animal reproduction: A comprehensive review.

Melatonin and its receptors play a crucial role in the regulation of the animal reproductive process, primarily in follicular development. However, the role that melatonin performs in regulating hormones related with reproduction remains unclear. Melatonin and its receptors are present both in female and male animals' organs, such as ovaries, heart, brain and liver. Melatonin regulates ovarian actions and is a key mediator of reproductive actions. Melatonin has numerous effects on animal reproduction, such as protection of gametes and embryos, response to clock genes, immune-neuroendocrine, reconciliation of seasonal variations in immune function, and silence or blockage of genes. The growth ratio of reproductive illnesses in animals has raised a remarkable concern for the government, animal caretakers and farm managers. In order to resolve this challenging issue, it is very necessary to conduct state-of-the-art research on melatonin and its receptors because melatonin has considerable physiognomies. This review article presents a current contemporary research conducted by numerous researchers from the entire world on the role of melatonin and its receptors in animal reproduction, from the year 1985 to the year 2017. Furthermore, this review shows scientific research challenges related to melatonin receptors and their explanations based on the findings of 172 numerous research articles, and also represents significant proficiencies of melatonin in order to show enthusiastic study direction for animal reproduction researchers.

Health Monitoring of Laboratory Animals in Breeding and Experimental Units

The last decades the number of laboratory animals used in experiments was dramatically increased due to biomedical research development, while new needs were revealed. The animals used in experiments should be genetically defined and should have a certain health status. Only healthy animals should be used in experiments. The good health of the lab animals that are goingto be used in experiments and the maintenance of this good health during the whole period (before- during- in the end) of experimentation is of crucial importance. On the other hand, the good health of all animals (and of course lab animals) is always at a risk due to a variety of infections. These infections (clinical or subclinical) can influence the outcome of the experiment. Moreover, clinical disease may not be observed until the animal is stressed (e.g the experiment itself or other endogenous or exogenous factors). Depending upon the exogenous factor or the infectious agent a variety of biological parameters maybe influenced. Microbial infections may also lead to biological material contamination such as: tissue cultures, cell-lines, biological products(sera), while many of these infectious agents are zoonotic. In this case, the risk for the personnel (scientists, animal caretakers, technicians) is great. Not only in most European Countries, but also in the U.S.A., Canada and Japan, Health Monitoring Programs (HMPs) in lab animal facilities are performed. In 1994 and later in 2002 the Federation of European Laboratory Animal Science Associations (FELASA) published recommendations for the health monitoring of rodent and rabbit colonies in breeding and experimental units. In these recommendations a list of viruses, bacteria, mycoplasmas, fungi and parasites that lab animal facilities should be monitored for, is presented. Moreover, recommendations for the sampling frequency, the sample size and the diagnostic methodology are also given. By publishing these Recommendations FELASA aims to the harmonization of HMPs at least between the E.U. countries. Moreover, the need for accredited diagnostic laboratories involved in health monitoring is underlined.

Prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in captive wildlife species of India.

Campylobacteriosis is an important zoonotic disease and the prevalence of Campylobacter is largely unknown in the wildlife of India. A total of 370 samples, comprising of 314 fresh faecal samples from apparently healthy captive wild animals and birds, 30 stool swabs from animal care takers and 26 samples of the animals' food and water were collected from G. B. Pant High Altitude Zoo, Nainital, Kanpur Zoo, Wildlife Park, IVRI and the Post Graduate Research Institute in Animal Sciences (PGRIAS), Chennai, Tamilnadu from August 2014 to May 2015. Samples were processed for cultural isolation, direct PCR and multiplex PCR for species confirmation. To decipher the genetic diversity, the 16S rRNA gene was amplified, sequenced and analyzed. Based on isolation, the overall occurrence rate of Campylobacter spp. was 0.8% (3/370), being 2.94% (3/102) for captive wild birds. Three Campylobacter jejuni were isolated from silver pheasants, lady amherest pheasants and saras cranes. Direct PCR assay showed the overall occurrence rate of Campylobacter spp. to be 4.77% (15/315), being 1.58% (2/126) for captive wild ruminants, 5.81% (5/86) for non-ruminants and 7.84% (8/102) for birds. All the isolates were identified as C. jejuni.

Awareness and Practices Regarding Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever among Animal Handlers in Peri-urban Karachi and Rural Areas of Sindh

Objective: To assess the awareness and practices among animal handlers regarding Crimean- Congo haemorrhagic fever and compare the awareness and practices among different groups of animal handlers in Sindh, Pakistan.
 Methods: Cross-sectional study conducted among 150 animal handlers with the response rate of 93%, including sellers, butchers, transporters, caretakers and veterinary doctors in peri-urban Karachi and rural areas of Sindh. Quota sampling technique was adopted to select the study population. The duration of the study was three months from August 2016 to October 2016; this period includes selling of animals of sacrifice for Eid-ul-Azha in temporary established markets. Data was entered into Epidata 3.1 and analysed using SPSS version 23.
 Results: A total of 150 participants enrolled in the study. The mean age of the study participants was
 35 ± 7.5 years. Among the subjects, 48% were uneducated. Overall, 52% of the participants were aware about the Crimean-Congo fever. The hygiene practice among animal handlers was found to be washing; 40.7%, bathing; 27.3% and tick removal; 11.3%. The awareness of Crimean-Congo fever among animal caretakers was 50%, animal sellers; 43.3%, transporters; 36.7% and butchers; 30% (p<0.001).
 Conclusion: The awareness among animal handlers was on the lower side among animal sellers, transporters, butchers and animal care taker and there is a need to improve the awareness level among these groups regarding practices, hygiene of the animal as well as handling procedures.