Angler Behavior Research Articles

Future Trends in Angler Behavior Based on a Delphi Study in the Nordic Countries

ABSTRACTRecreational fisheries are dynamic social‐ecological systems. Identification of anticipated future trends supports the design of policies and management to deliver outcomes for fisheries resources, users, and communities. To this end, we applied a forecasting method (i.e., Delphi survey) to recreational fisheries in five Nordic countries. The survey consisted of three rounds and included 20 diverse experts from each country. The study focused on expert perceptions of future trends in angler behaviors linked to specific angling activities (e.g., gear used, species targeted), and more general behavior (e.g., social media use, stewardship). Experts unanimously expected increases in fly fishing, stewardship, and use of angling‐related technologies and social media platforms in the upcoming decade. Results can guide future research, management, and collaboration related to recreational fishing in the Nordic countries and beyond.

Understanding the Role of Recreational Angling Technology in Angler Expectations of Catch, Trip Catch, and Angler Satisfaction

Rapid technological advancement often receives a mix of criticism and welcome implementation. Fishing technologies, such as sonar, are believed to enable anglers to be more efficient and effective in their angling. There are concerns from anglers and managers of increased catch by technology users. We assessed the relationships between technology use—defined as the use of imaging technology such as sonar and underwater cameras—and catch, angler expectations of catch, and trip satisfaction using a dual intercept creel survey. Angling technologies were used by 80% and 79% of intercepted boat and ice anglers, respectively, but only 3.9% of shore anglers. Fishing technologies increased expected catch for game fish anglers, but not panfish anglers, and had no effect on actual catch for either group. Most anglers caught fewer fish than expected, and technology did not improve their ability to meet expectations. Technology use was associated with decreased overall satisfaction among panfish and game fish anglers. These results suggest that concerns about fishing technology increasing catch may not be warranted. Rather, technology use may affect angler expectations and negatively impact angler satisfaction, potentially influencing angler behavior.

Angler knowledge of live bait regulations and invasive species: insights for invasive species prevention

The prevention of aquatic invasive species is one of the most cost-effective management strategies for reducing negative ecological, economic, and social impacts to freshwater ecosystems. The release of leftover baitfish via the live bait trade has been identified as a high-risk pathway for introducing invasive species beyond physical barriers (e.g., mountains, dams). To assess differences in behavior surrounding live bait use and angler knowledge of invasive species, we conducted in-person angler surveys at waterbody access sites (i.e. boat ramps with available shore fishing and a shore fishing location with no boat ramp) along the Missouri River, above and below Gavins Point Dam (Yankton, South Dakota, USA). We were primarily interested in whether angler behavior and knowledge differed among fishing locations over the course of a year because of potential variation in risk. Gavins Point Dam is impervious to fish passage and prevents the spread of invasive silver carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix and bighead carp H. nobilis (collectively known as bigheaded carp), but bigheaded carp could be transported above this dam by the use of live baitfish. Regardless of where respondents fished (above the dam/carp absent, below the dam/carp present, or both), 70% ± 11.12 of anglers used live baitfish and 57% ± 3.14 participated in ‘higher risk’ baitfish practices including release. Knowledge of bigheaded carp was limited, as only 2% ± 1.31 of respondents identified both bigheaded carp as invasive in an image collage, 51.82% ± 4.48 could not identify where invasive carp are present/absent, and 40% ± 3.34 of anglers had not received any information regarding bigheaded carp. These findings highlight limitations in angler knowledge, compliance, and identification of native and invasive species. Future implementable actions could include invasive species and baitfish release outreach via electronic media sources or additional signage that address these knowledge gaps.

Human Behavior and Harvest Regulations: Challenges and Opportunities for Fisheries Managers

Harvest regulation is one of the primary tools that natural resource managers use to manage exploited fish and wildlife populations. Unfortunately, the desired results of harvest regulations are frequently not realized. We contend that a broader and more thorough understanding of anglers could improve the success of harvest regulations. Using a case study from an interstate U.S. fishery for Walleye Sander vitreus, we demonstrate the counterintuitive responses anglers exhibited to differing Walleye harvest regulations. Three possible reasons are explored, using theories from social–science disciplines, to explain why anglers released a greater proportion of larger Walleye under a more liberalized harvest regulation: (1) harvest regulations serving as goals for anglers, (2) resolution of cognitive dissonance provided by restrictive harvest regulations, and (3) the perceived “value” assigned to specific fish or wildlife entity by harvest regulations. We conclude by discussing how taking an interdisciplinary approach (e.g., sociology, psychology, economics) to understanding angler behavior could be an exciting frontier for fisheries management and how this approach specifically holds promise for improving the success of harvest regulations.

Early pandemic recreational fishing patterns across the urban-to-rural gradient in the U.S.

In 2020, the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic disrupted individual and social behaviors and norms, including outdoor activities. A recreational angling survey of 18,000 licensed anglers from 10 states (AR, CT, FL, IA, MO, NC, SC, TX, UT, WY) was conducted in summer 2020 to characterize recreational fishing trends during the first few months of the pandemic. The study presented here builds off this survey by combining the survey data with county-level human population density and spring 2020 per capita COVID-19 cases to understand how anglers responded to the pandemic along the urban-to-rural continuum. Specifically, we wanted to know if population density or COVID-19 cases per capita influenced angler-reported 1) changes in license sales, 2) number of fishing trips, and 3) motivation for fishing. Overall results suggest that per capita COVID-19 cases were more influential in driving angler behavior than population density in the early pandemic (01 March 2020–31 May 2020). At the onset of the pandemic, high COVID-19 case counts were associated with an uptick in recreational angling activity. In counties with greater COVID-19 case counts, there was greater angler recruitment (i.e., attraction of new individuals to recreational fishing) and earlier license purchases. Anglers aged ≥40 years and earning ≥$50,000 living in areas of greater per capita COVID-19 cases also went on more fishing trips than they typically would. Angler motivations varied across gradients of population density and per capita COVID-19 cases: anglers living in areas of higher population densities were more likely to report fishing for stress relief, sport, and competition among friends, and anglers living in areas of higher per capita COVID-19 cases were more likely to report fishing for sport and because they had free time and less likely to report fishing for food. Management efforts can focus on retaining and reactivating pandemic anglers.

Angler’s sense of place as an indicator for perceived vulnerability to shifting stock distributions

Climate change continues to warm ocean waters and cause fish stocks to redistribute to untraditional locations, prompting changes in angler behavior and destabilizing the connection they have built with particular places in order to fish successfully. This research evaluates recreational anglers’ sense of place in New York, Connecticut, and Rhode Island (USA), as an indicator to assess perceptions of vulnerability in relation to shifting fish stock distributions through a mixed-methods research design. The findings of this research suggest that recreational anglers’ sense of place can be significantly associated with vulnerability perceptions as environmental conditions continue to shift. Sense of place is a key component of an angler’s identity and therefore must be preserved to promote community resilience, encourage sustainable behavior, and help anglers better adjust to change. Implementing sense of place as an indicator within vulnerability and well-being assessments may contribute to the robustness of the socio-cultural data collected within recreational saltwater angler populations to build holistic and adaptive ecosystem-based management plans, as well as assist with the movement towards climate-ready fisheries policy.

Sex and season influence behaviour and physiology of lake trout following angling.

Catch-and-release angling exposes fish to challenges that may result in sub-lethal effects or mortality. Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) undergo high rates of release because of size-based harvest regulations or voluntary angler behaviour. Here, we examine short-term impairment in lake trout angled during the summer (n = 74) and fall spawning period (n = 33) to inform best practices for angling. Immediately following capture or 0.5h post-capture, fish underwent reflex and barotrauma assessments, and a small blood sample was collected. Fish were also fitted with an externally mounted biologger equipped with depth, temperature and tri-axial acceleration sensors, that was tethered to allow retrieval of the logger after 14min. In the summer, reflex impairment and barotrauma at 0 and 0.5h were significantly correlated. Loss of orientation and bloating were the most observed indicators. Larger fish and those captured at increased depth had higher barotrauma scores, while prolonged fight times decreased the barotrauma score regardless of sampling time. Plasma cortisol, lactate and glucose increased 0.5h after capture, and extracellular and intracellular pH decreased, all signs that angling was inducing a metabolic response. However, no relationships were found between blood indices and mortality (18.9%). The time required to reach maximum depth after release was longer for fish with increased air exposure but shorter for those with longer fight times. During the fall, fish displayed no mortality or reflex impairment. Anal prolapse was the most observed indicator of barotrauma but only observed in females. Blood indices were most altered 0.5h after capture, with increased cortisol values for fish that were female, particularly large or captured at deeper depth. Locomotor activity was highest for males and increased with depth. Together, our findings suggest that the effects of catch-and-release angling may be dependent on several factors, including sex, season and angling depth.

Integrating human behavior into structured population models

Human behavior shapes modern ecosystems but is difficult to parse into parameters for ecological models. We used Bayesian models of human behavior, a stage-structured population model, and a novel mortality integration approach to ask how human decisions affect animal population dynamics and conservation outcomes in the context of recreational fishing. Walleye (Sander vitreus) are a broadcast-spawning freshwater fish with large, slow-maturing females and small, fast-maturing males. We observed that simpler and less restrictive fishing regulations outperformed more complex and stricter regulations at conserving equilibrium adult female abundance and overall population abundance while still facilitating large harvests. This outcome was possible because angler behavior within the least restrictive regulation concentrated harvest on juveniles and adult males. Our findings indicate that, counter to intuitive expectations, moderate regulations can acheive conservation objectives when we account for the interaction of regulatory policy, human behavior, and animal life history. We suggest that integrating models of human behavior with models of animal life history and population dynamics will provide essential insights for conservation in ecosystems increasingly shaped by human decisions.

Talk is cheap: Direct evidence of conservation‐based changes in angler behavior

AbstractPost‐release mortality threatens shark populations already imperiled by overfishing, capture stress, and a changing climate. Few studies have quantified post‐release mortality for sharks captured in land‐based recreational fisheries. From 2018 to 2021, a land‐based shark post‐release mortality study was conducted and identified water temperature and species‐specific behavior as contributing factors to post‐release mortality. The purpose of this study was to estimate the effectiveness of disseminating the recommendation for best practices to recreational shark anglers and to determine if this information influenced angler behavior. Awareness of our post‐release mortality study influenced an angler's likely release behavior, with an increase in sharks landed in the water and corresponding decrease of sharks landed on dry sand. This study demonstrated direct evidence of conservation‐based changes in angler behavior following effective research communication and involvement of anglers in research. Outreach and engagement initiatives aimed at providing best handling practices to recreational anglers should be easily digestible, widely available, and an important component of future research.

Anglers as potential vectors of aquatic invasive species: Linking inland water bodies in the Great Lakes region of the US.

Unimpeded transfer and spread of invasive species throughout freshwater systems is of global concern, altering species compositions, disrupting ecosystem processes, and diverting economic resources. The magnitude and complexity of the problem is amplified by the global connectedness of human movements and the multiple modes of inter-basin transport of aquatic invasive species. Our objective was to trace the fishing behavior of anglers delineating potential pathways of transfer of invasive species throughout the vast inland waters of the Great Lakes of North America, which contain more than 21% of the world's surface freshwater and are among the most highly invaded aquatic ecosystems in the world. Combining a comprehensive survey and a spatial analysis of the movements of thousands of anglers in 12 states within the US portion of the Great Lakes Basin and the Upper Mississippi and Ohio River Basins, we estimated that 6.5 million licensed anglers in the study area embarked on an average of 30 fishing trips over the course of the year, and 70% of the individuals fished in more than one county. Geospatial linkages showed direct connections made by individuals traveling between 99% of the 894 counties where fishing occurred, and between 61 of the 66 sub-watersheds in a year. Estimated numbers of fishing trips to individual counties ranged from 1199-1.95 million; generally highest in counties bordering the Great Lakes. Of these, 79 had more than 10,000 estimated fishing trips originating from anglers living in other counties. Although angler movements are one mechanism of invasive species transfer, there likely is a high cumulative probability of invasive species transport by several million people fishing each year throughout this extensive freshwater network. A comprehensive georeferenced survey, coupled with a spatial analysis of fishing destinations, provides a potentially powerful tool to track, predict, curtail and control the transfer and proliferation of invasive species in freshwater.

A review of elasmobranch catch-and-release science: synthesis of current knowledge, implications for best practice and future research directions.

Until relatively recently commercial fisheries have been considered the main driving factor for elasmobranch population declines. However, this belief has begun to shift with the realization that recreational elasmobranch catches may equal or exceed commercial catches in some regions. Many recreational angling fisheries for elasmobranchs involve high participation in catch-and-release angling practices. However, high release rates may not necessarily equate to high survival rates. Therefore, to assist accurate assessment of the potential impact of recreational angling on elasmobranchs, we attempted to summarize and integrate currently available information on specific risk factors associated with recreational angling, alongside associated mortality rates, as well as information on angler behaviour as it relates to identified risk factors. We categorized the major angling-related effects into two groups: injury-induced effects; and biochemical disruption-induced effects; providing a summary of each group and outlining the main lethal and sub-lethal outcomes stemming from these. These outcomes include immediate and delayed post-release mortality, behavioural recovery periods (which may in-turn confer increased predation risks), chronic health impacts and capture-induced parturition and abortion. Additionally, we detailed a range of angling practices and equipment, including hook-type, hook removal and emersion (i.e. air exposure), as well as inter- and intra-specific factors, including aerobic scope, respiratory mode, body size and species-specific behaviours, which are likely to influence injury and/or mortality rates and should therefore be considered when assessing angling-related impacts. We then utilized these data to provide a range of actionable recommendations for both anglers and policymakers which would serve to reduce the population-level impact of recreational angling on these enigmatic animals.

Impact of Personal Experience of COVID-19 Disease on Recreational Anglers' Attitudes and Behaviors.

Anglers are a large social group with access to a "relatively safe" form of recreation, that allows the opportunity to relieve stress. An important question, however, is how they did so, and to what extent their perceived COVID-19 transition status influenced decisions both in life and at the fishing site. Our study aimed to determine the dynamics of anglers' attitudes and behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic as a result of the different statuses of their exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 virus. We assumed that the behavior of anglers who have not experienced the disease (were not ill and not sure if ill) will be similar and, on the other hand, different from the behavior of those who have experienced COVID-19. The web-assisted interviews survey was used among 586 anglers with different COVID-19 disease experience statuses. Their pandemic behavior and activities by four age groups were studied using non-metric multidimensional scaling. Redundancy analysis has been used to identify the relationship between anglers' life attitudes and socioeconomic and demographic factors, taking into account their preferences and involvement in fishing. We have demonstrated that the behavior of anglers who have not experienced COVID-19 disease and do not present a reckless attitude toward pandemic threats, do not show significant differences from the life attitudes of the group experienced by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. These two groups comprise more than 70% of anglers. However, the rest show a lack of interest in an aware diagnosis of their health and a low level of acceptance of self-restraint in the area of direct social contact. Unawareness, combined with ignorance, could be a potential factor in the transmission of the virus while fishing. The behaviors of almost 30% of anglers are particularly risky when combined with a strong need to fish in the company of friends and familiar people. Anglers' social identity should be tapped by fishery managers. Targeted educational campaigns should be aimed at groups around specific fishing spots. The need for self-limitation under the pandemic should be promoted for the benefit of the general public and to maintain the reputation of angling as a safe recreational activity.

Interactions between fish and angler behaviour affect species-specific catchability of sympatric native charr and two introduced trout

Catchability is a key determinant of fishing pressure, and plays an important role in the management of recreational fisheries. We investigated the catchability of three sympatric salmonid species in a recreational fishery in Lake Shikaribetsu, Japan—the endemic Miyabe charr (Salvelinus malma miyabei), introduced masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou), and introduced rainbow trout (O. mykiss)—using a combination of stock assessment and angler survey data. Catchability differed among species, angling gear, and the interaction between these two, even when a similar fishing gear was used. Because of its migratory behaviour and fishing gear restrictions, the catchability of Miyabe charr was the lowest of these species, which became lower as fish density was lower. Conversely, the density-dependent changes of the catchability were not detected in masu salmon which few anglers targeted specifically. Rainbow trout catchability by fly anglers was the highest, possibly because the fishing tactics of fly anglers targeting this species were tailored to its foraging behaviour. We regarded differences in catchability among these three salmonids to be related to differences in fish and angler behaviours. These results indicate that behavioural characteristics of both fish species and anglers can cause different fishing pressure in a single recreational fishery targeting multispecies fish via interspecific catchability, and they should be taken into account for their management.

Analysis of a Catch‐and‐Harvest Fishing Contest for Brown Trout Spanning 50+ Years: Long‐Term Trends Influenced by Fisheries Management Actions and Angler Behavior

AbstractLong‐term effects of evolving fisheries management, changing angler practices, and stream habitat development on stream trout fisheries in southeastern Minnesota, USA, were examined by analyzing data on >1,000 weekly winners from a single‐watershed, catch‐and‐harvest Brown Trout Salmo trutta fishing contest spanning 54 years. The weights of winning fish declined significantly across the period examined. No‐entry weeks increased within the past two decades, corresponding to expanding catch‐and‐release fishing. The streams that produced winning fish shifted as stream access increased, degraded stream habitat was improved, and various angling restrictions were instituted. Most winning fish were caught with live or preserved bait, although the proportion of winners caught with artificial lures doubled from the 1960s to the 2010s. The interpretation of contest results must consider various angling regulations (e.g., protected slot lengths, artificial lures only, catch and release only) that were placed on some reaches during and after the 1980s, increasing voluntary catch‐and‐release practices of contemporary anglers, and expanding stream access and habitat improvements within the watershed.

The Role of Fishing Piers in Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) Entanglement.

Simple SummaryBrown Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) are frequently entangled in fishing gear, particularly in areas with piers. Our study quantified the rate of pelican entanglement on four fishing piers in Tampa Bay, Florida, and measured variables we suspected might influence the number of entanglements. Over 7% of the Brown Pelicans seen near piers were entangled in fishing gear. Pelicans were more likely to be entangled at the two piers that had extensive perches near the piers. Reducing pelican perching near piers or reducing fishing near areas where pelicans perch would likely lead to a reduction in entanglement.Throughout their range, Brown Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) are one of the most common species to become entangled in fishing gear. We surveyed four piers every other week for one year (6/2019–5/2020) in the Tampa Bay region, FL, USA, to determine frequency of pelican entanglement associated with fishing piers, and explored factors that might influence the rate of entanglement. We conducted a generalized linear model (GLM) to determine the influence that pier, pier closure due to COVID-19, time of day and season, number of anglers, and presence of human behaviors that might attract pelicans to the pier had on the number of entangled pelicans. We conducted 144 surveys and counted 3766 pelicans of which 254 (7%) were entangled. The variables significantly associated (p < 0.05) with entanglement were the pier, time of day, and pier closure status, while the number and behavior of anglers were not significant. The two piers that most significantly influenced the number of entanglements both had extensive perches within 10 m of the fishing pier. The management action most likely to reduce the number of entangled pelicans appears to be deterring pelicans from perching near piers or decreasing fishing near perching structures.

Catch and release angling for sea trout explored by citizen science: Angler behavior, hooking location and bleeding patterns

Sea trout (anadromous brown trout, Salmo trutta L.) is a popular target species for angling in Denmark and many other countries. In most regions, angling for sea trout is regulated by measures such as minimum landing sizes, bag limits or seasonal closures. This can lead to high catch and release (C&R) rates. However, information about angler behavior, C&R practices, hooking locations and level of injury and bleeding, as well as post-release impacts on survival and growth, is largely missing for this species. In this study, we used a citizen science approach to investigate C&R practices of Danish sea trout anglers and to explore drivers for hooking location and bleeding. During the study period from January 2016 to August 2021, 35,826 sea trout caught by angling were reported by users of the citizen science platform. Spin fishing was the most popular angling method (46 %), followed by fly fishing (35 %), bombarda fishing (19 %) and natural bait fishing (1 %). The results confirmed that C&R is a very widespread practice among Danish sea trout anglers, and ≥80 % of all sea trout captured are being released, the majority because they are below the minimum landing size. Twenty-five percent of the caught sea trout bled, and 2 % showed heavy bleeding. Bleeding was related to hooking location (deeply hooked fish bled the most) and to angling method (fly-caught sea trout bled less than fish caught on spin fishing gear), but the role of these two factors varied with fish length. When looking at fish above the legal minimum size, the share of bleeders among the released sea trout was significantly lower compared to harvested fish, suggesting that anglers were more prone to harvest fish that bled. Further studies on lethal and sublethal effects of C&R on coastal sea trout are needed, ultimately aiming to provide fishery managers and anglers with species- and fishery-specific best practice C&R guidelines.

Digital Data Help Explain Drivers of Angler Satisfaction: An Example from Southern Norway

AbstractWe analyzed trip‐level self‐reports collected by a cell phone app to understand angler satisfaction of fishing for sea trout Salmo trutta (anadromous Brown Trout) in southern Norway. We found no clear support for a positive relationship between trip outcome (catch or no catch) and angler satisfaction level. In the cases where sea trout was caught, however, there was a positive relationship between fish size and angler satisfaction level. A total of 52% of the captured sea trout were voluntarily released, and releases were unrelated to fish size. In conclusion, digital data collected via a cell phone app are useful to reveal patterns of angler behavior and satisfaction.

Species differences, but not habitat, influence catch rate hyperstability across a recreational fishery landscape

In commercial and recreational fisheries, catch rate is often assumed to be proportional to stock size and is used by managers and fishers as an indicator of fishery sustainability. If catch rate is proportional to stock size, it can signal a decline of stocks and managers can impose restrictive harvest policies or recreational anglers can move to a new system and allow the over-exploited system to rebound. A growing literature has documented catch rates remaining high even as fish stocks decline (i.e., hyperstability of catch rates) leading to delayed management intervention and overexploitation. Although recent evidence has indicated the presence of hyperstability of catch rates in recreational fisheries, whether hyperstability differs across species or system types remains unknown. To investigate whether catch rate hyperstability varies amongst species or systems, we first tested whether electrofishing catch per unit effort (efCPUE) was an appropriate proxy for true abundance. We then compared the relationship between angler catch rate and fish abundance for common freshwater sport fishes across gradients of habitat availability. We found significant differences in the strength of hyperstability amongst species. We did not identify a consistent influence of habitat on hyperstability of catch rates. Angler preferences and behavior may explain some of the variance in non-proportional catch rates. Future research investigating angler behavior, population size structure, and population dynamics in these systems may identify key interactions that create differences in vulnerability to population collapse.

Are recreational fishing guides role models for their clients?

Fishing guides are respected as opinion leaders of the recreational angling community, but little is known of their influence on angler behaviour. Given their social-standing, fishing guides may be perceived as role models by fishing clients – thereby potentially shaping the practices of many through their extensive networks of fishing clients. This influence may promote the adoption of best and/or worst environmental behaviours, depending on their individual knowledge, attitudes and actions. To understand if fishing guides are perceived to be role models by the recreational angling community, a digital survey containing a nine-question role model perception scale was designed to assess fishing clients’ attitudes towards fishing guides. The survey was designed to assess whether angling guides served the three role model functions proposed in the Motivational Theory of Role Modelling, which posits that role models function as Behavioural models, Representations of the Possible and Inspiration. Of the 492 fishing clients (27 countries), most agreed that fishing guides were competent, skilled, and worth emulating (91.1 %), suggesting they are perceived as Behavioural Models. Less agreed that fishing guides were Inspirational or Representations of the Possible (54.8 %), suggesting they are less likely to motivate anglers to adopt and/or pursue new goals. As Behavioural Models, fishing guide behavioural practices are likely to be emulated. These findings suggest that fisheries managers have an opportunity to influence general angler behaviour through focussed behavioural interventions with angling guides.

The Significance of Angling in Stress Reduction during the COVID-19 Pandemic-Environmental and Socio-Economic Implications.

Recreational fishing and other outdoor recreational activities have been proven to have positive effects on mental health, including neutralizing pandemic stress. This study aims to identify the perceptions and behavior of recreational anglers during the COVID-19 pandemic along with identifying the factors that determine attitudes. This study is essential for understanding the complex economic, social, and environmental implications associated with a pandemic. Perceptions of pandemic stress reduction were confirmed by 63.8% of anglers, and nearly 98% felt there was no risk of infection from fishing. These feelings were most strongly positively associated and explained by a preference for fishing with friends and family and the frequency of fishing. Over 26% of respondents fished more frequently during the pandemic. Additional free time and the need to escape the pandemic media hype were the main factors for the increase in angler activity. The balance of benefits from changes in angler pandemic behavior was ambiguous. This was determined by considering the potential increase in pressure on the environmental resources that anglers use. Given the positive effects of angling on stress reduction, it is not advisable for policymakers to restrict recreational fishing access. Instead, best management practices should reduce sanitary bottlenecks to increase safety on fishing grounds.