Andreas Vesalius Research Articles

To the 500th anniversary of the birth of Gabriele Falloppio (1523–1562)

The article is dedicated to the 500th anniversary of the birth of the greatest physician and scientist of the 16th century Gabriele Falloppio (Fallopius), a revolutionary morphologist who made an invaluable contribution to the development of science, and one of the founders of fundamental anatomy. Although Falloppio is primarily known as an anatomist who described the uterine (“fallopian”) tubes, his range of interests was much wider, and his contribution to anatomy was substantially more significant. Fallopius made many important discoveries in anatomy, and a number of anatomical structures bear his name. Also, Gabriele Falloppio was a talented teacher and a renowned medical practitioner, surgeon and pharmacist. It should be especially noted that Fallopius considered himself an apprentice of Andreas Vesalius. There is no data confirming the fact of their personal acquaintance, but there is documentary evidence of short-term correspondence between Fallopius and Vesalius. In his famous work “Anatomical observations” (“Observationes anatomicae”, 1561), Fallopius pointed out Vesalius’ mistakes and inaccuracies in anatomical descriptions, subjecting his “De humani corporis fabrica” to correct criticism. Vesalius’ reply with compliments to Fallopius as a scientist has been preserved. In any case, the undoubted fact is that Fallopius was an adherent of Vesalius’ methods in applied science and the teaching of anatomy, and consistently introduced them into practice throughout his life.

Poznání sebe sama a teleologie v renesanční anatomii na příkladu Jesseniovy Pražské pitvy

In the article, teleological thinking in Renaissance anatomy is presented by the example of the Wittenberg anatomist Johannes Jessenius (1566-1621), who performed the first public dissection in Prague in 1600 and published a description of it in Wittenberg in 1601. Jessenius, a graduate of the University of Padua, is also concerned with teleology, which he uses both to justify anatomical practice and to incorporate it into his own interpretation of anatomical acts. In my article, I focus primarily on the dedication and introduction to Jessenius's Prague Anatomy, where teleological thinking is most clearly manifested. I present the teleology in Jessenius in two stages with reference to the passage in the dedication to the Prague Anatomy. In keeping with contemporary practice, Jessenius interprets the Delphic oracle “Know Thyself” as a call to anatomical knowledge of the human body. At the same time the self-knowledge is the knowledge of God in the sense of the connection between cognitio sui and cognitio Dei. The knowledge of the principle of purposefulness thus seems to be the culmination of all anatomical study. In terms of teleology, Jessenius focuses on the points in which the human being differs from other creatures: mind, hand, upright figure. Special attention is paid in my paper to the anatomy of the hand, in which Jessenius follows specifically Andreas Vesalius, who adopts a teleological understanding of the hand from Aristotle and Galen.

Juan Valverde de Amusco: Pioneering the Transfer of Post-Vesalian Anatomy

This article delves into the life and accomplishments of Juan Valverde de Amusco (c. 1525–c. 1587), a Spanish anatomist. Specifically, it focuses on his book titled HISTORIA de la composición del cuerpo humano. The book was the first anatomy opus published after Andreas Vesalius’ De humani corporis fabrica libri septem, written in a Romance language, the Castilian Spanish language, making it the most renowned post-Vesalian anatomy book in Europe and beyond during the 16th and 17th centuries. Compiling complete editions and reproductions of figures, it had 19 editions and several translations. One of its principal contributions was the initial graphical representation of the stapes ossicle. It provided the first accurate description of the pulmonary circulation, vomer bone, and four extraocular rectus muscles. Throughout the book, Valverde corrected numerous of Vesalius’ anatomical observations. HISTORIA de la composición del cuerpo humano was the first anatomy book to use chalcographic illustrations, which are of superior anatomical quality than those printed from engraved wood in Andreas Vesalius’ book. Next, many anatomy textbooks of that time incorporated Valverde’s book illustrations. Valverde’s book was practical, timely, and well referenced, making it a valuable resource for scholars and non-scholars. The conclusion is that Juan Valverde de Amusco merits a place as a pioneer in scientific knowledge transfer.

Dissection as a Method of Modern European Anatomy: Devoted to the 480th Anniversary of “De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem” by Andreas Vesalius

The article is devoted to the 480th anniversary of the publication of Andreas Vesalius’s “De humani corporis fabrica libri septem” and considers its biographical, historical, cultural contexts. The authors compare the results of Andreas Vesalius' investigation to other anatomical studies in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, presenting Vesalius’s work as the creation of a new European scientific approach in anatomy, identical to a research experiment in physics. It is demonstrated the significance of the dissection method in the form proposed by Andreas Vesalius for modern anatomy and medicine. The principal work of Andreas Vesalius is considered as the most important source of anatomical vocabulary, which is the prototype of international anatomical nomenclature. The biographical and historical issues presented by the authors allow modern readers to reveal the meanings of Andreus Vesalius’s paper, the original meaning of which was lost with all the time that has passed. The results of modern studies investigating the work of the great Flemish anatomist, little known to the Russian reader, are presented.

Ceratum Galeni: An old eponym honoring Galen and his cold cream

Ceratum Galeni is an old eponym honoring the name of Galen of Pergamum (129 to cca 216 CE) and a cold cream he described more than 1,800 years ago. We traced this eponym back to the 14th and 16th centuries in published medical texts by Guy de Chauliac (ca 1300-1368) and Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564). We also found a 4th-century reference in a medical work by Oribasius (ca 320-403 CE) to a mixture of wax and oil of roses based on Galen's cold cream formula. We present the images of a 19th-century apothecary white porcelain jar from Paris, France, on which appears the words Cerat Galeni, as well as a 20th-century oil painting by the American artist Robert Thom (1915-1979), which shows Galen administering his cold cream to a woman. Today, the composition of cold cream is formulated differently from Galen's original version, although the basic concept of cold cream as an oil and water emulsion remains the same. The widespread mention of Ceratum Galeni across the centuries and the popularity of cold creams today are striking examples of Galen's enormous influence on medicine as one of its founding fathers.

"The Shakespeare of medicine": works and days of John Hunter (1728-1793)

John Hunter is rightly ranks with such most famous researchers and physicians as Galen, William Harvey and Andreas Vesalius. His role as the founder of the "experimental surgery" of the New Age and the creator of the famous Hunterian Medical Museum in London is significant for the history of medicine. His contribution into development of dentistry is incontestable. His work "The Natural history of human teeth: an explanation of their structure, use, formation, growth and diseases" (1771) was translated into many languages, but it was never published in Russian. The accuracy of description of the anatomy of teeth, jaws and mouth cavity, the view? contemporary for us, of development of the jaws and their relationship with the masseters, the introduction of such terms as "canines", "incisors" and "anterior molars" into scientific circulation and everyday practice of dentists, the illustrations excellent by their quality and accuracy - all this is John Hunter. His works predetermined path of development of many medical directions, giving food for thought to his followers and disciples. The article reveals the facts of his biography, demonstrates significance of contribution of John Hunter into medicine in his works on anatomy, surgery, natural history of dentistry and stomatology.

A Brief Review of the History of Global and Croatian Neurosurgery

Neurosurgery is the oldest, but also the youngest medical discipline. Namely, archaeological findings confirm the existence of cranial bone trepanations in the Late Stone Age, while neurosurgery as a separate discipline was founded only at the beginning of the 20th century. Descriptions of head/spinal injuries, and trepanations, date back to ancient Egypt (Edwin Smith papyrus) and physicians like Hippocrates, the Alexandrian school, and Galen, who described his classification of cranial fractures, perfected trepanation and contributed to neuroanatomy and physiology. Unfortunately, with his disappearance, the study of the central nervous system ceased during the next millennium. Medieval contribution to neurosurgery is due to the work of Arab and Persian physicians (Albucasis, Avicenna), who collected, preserved, and improved the medical knowledge of ancient times, including neuroscience. With the arrival of the Renaissance in the early 16th century, significant advances in anatomy, medicine, surgery, and neuroscience began. Berengario da Carpi, Andreas Vesalius, and Ambroise Paré stood out as progenitors of this era. During the 19th century, at a time of progress in medicine and surgery, preconditions were created for more extensive and long-lasting neurosurgical procedures, while the era of modern neurosurgery began in the early 20th century with the pioneering activities of MacEwan, Horsley, Cushing, Elsberg, Dandy and many others. Further progress in neurosurgery was made through the use of an operating microscope, which from 1965 marked the era of modern microneurosurgery, founded by Yaşargil. The beginnings of neurosurgical activity in Croatia date back to the end of the 19th century when Theodor Wickerhauser published a record of the first craniotomy done in our country in 1886. In conclusion, modern neurosurgery as one of the most advanced medical professions is based on the achievements of its historical leaders, and on the cutting-edge diagnostic and surgical armamentaria, together with the superior neurosurgical service organization.

An otolaryngological tour of Vesalius' De Humani Corporis Fabrica.

Andreas Vesalius published his famous anatomy book, De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septum (On the Fabric of the Body in Seven Books), in 1543, with a second edition in 1555. This article explores the importance of this text to contemporary ENT, by demonstrating Vesalius' fresh, precise and hands-on approach to anatomy, and examines how this developed our understanding of ENT. A second edition of De Humani Corporis Fabrica, held in John Rylands Library, University of Manchester, was examined in its digitised form and supplemented by secondary texts. Where Vesalius' predecessors were rigid in their interpretation of anatomy, confined to the instruction of the Ancients, Vesalius showed that these teachings could be analysed and built on with careful observation. This is evident in his illustrations of, and annotations on, the skull base, ossicles and thyroid gland.

Taylor McCall, The Art of Anatomy in Medieval Europe. London: Reaktion Books, 2023, 223 pp., 57 color and 15 b/w illus.

Due to their unjustified reputation as a time of ignorance and superstition, the Middle Ages do not come to mind when one thinks of advances in anatomy, or any kind of scientific knowledge. But in The Art of Anatomy in Medieval Europe, Taylor McCall (the managing editor of Speculum) clearly demonstrates that medieval thinkers were interested in anatomy, even if for reasons different from ours. McCall focuses on anatomical images in “educational texts,” which include both medical treatises and didactic religious works. While McCall admits that medieval anatomical images are not very common, enough exist to prove her contention that the study of anatomy antedated Andreas Vesalius’s publication of De Fabrica in 1543.

Gallstones: The thing in itself.

Content available: Audio Recording.

Management of injuries on the 16th-century battlefield: Ambroise Paré's contributions to neurosurgery and functional recovery.

During the 1536 siege of Turin in northern Italy, a young French barber-surgeon abandoned the conventional treatment of battle-inflicted wounds, launching a revolution in military medicine and surgical techniques. Ambroise Paré (1510-1590) was born into a working-class Huguenot family in Laval, France, during an era when surgery was not considered a respectable profession. He rose from humble origins as a barber-surgeon, a low-ranked occupation in the French medical hierarchy, to become a royal surgeon (chirurgien ordinaire du Roi) serving 4 consecutive French monarchs. His innovative ideas and surgical practice were a response to the environment created by new military technology on 16th-century European battlefields. Gunpowder weapons caused unfamiliar, complicated injuries that challenged Paré to develop new techniques and surgical instruments. Although Paré's contributions to the treatment of wounds and functional prosthetics are documented, a deeper appreciation of his role in military neurosurgery is needed. This paper examines archives, primary texts, and written accounts by Paré that reveal specific patient cases highlighting his innovative contributions to neurotrauma and neurosurgery during demanding and harrowing circumstances, on and off the battlefield, in 16th-century France. Notably, trepanation indications increased because of battlefield head injuries, and Paré frequently described this technique and improved the design of the trepan tool. His contribution to neurologically related topics is extensive; there are more chapters devoted to the nervous system than to any other organ system in his compendium, Oeuvres. Regarding anatomical knowledge as fundamentally important and admiring the contemporary contributions of Andreas Vesalius, Paré reproduced many images from Vesalius' works at his own great expense. The manner in which Paré's participation in military expeditions enabled collaboration with multidisciplinary artisans on devices, including surgical tools and prosthetics, to restore neurologically associated functionality is also discussed. Deeply religious, in a life filled with adventure, and serving in often horrendous conditions during a time when Galenic dogma still dominated medical practice, Paré developed a reputation for logic, empiricism, technology, and careful treatment. "I have [had] the opportunity to praise God, for what he called me to do in medical operation, which is commonly called surgery, which could not be bought with gold or silver, but by only virtue and great experimentation."

Anatomy, modern histology, and their mentors

Anatomy is a secular science that had contributions from great anatomists, mainly doctors. In the 16th century, modern anatomy emerged, and the studies of the physician and anatomist Andreas Vesalius, "father of modern anatomy", corrected the errors of his predecessors through human dissection and revolutionized the writing of anatomy with his work. Almost 200 years later, Marie François Xavier Bichat is "father of histology", contributed significantly to the description of tissues, expanding the studies of macroscopic anatomy to microscopic. In this article, the authors revisit the findings of anatomists notorious and their significant preliminary contributions to the current planning of surgical interventions.

Evolution of the myth of the human rete mirabile traced through text and illustrations in printed books: The case of Vesalius and his plagiarists

ABSTRACT Andreas Vesalius initially accepted Galen’s ideas concerning the rete mirabile in humans. In 1538, Vesalius drew a diagram of the human rete mirabile as a plexiform termination of the carotid arteries, where the vital spirit is transformed into the animal spirit, before being distributed from the brain along the nerves to the body. In 1540, Vesalius demonstrated the rete mirabile at a public anatomy, using a sheep’s head (due to his nascent realization that he could not demonstrate this adequately in a human cadaver, potentially eliciting ridicule). By 1543, Vesalius had fully reversed himself, denied the existence of the rete mirabile in humans, and castigated himself for his prior failure to recognize this error in Galen’s works. Vesalius nevertheless illustrated both the Galenic conception of the rete mirabile in humans and a schematic of the rete mirabile in ungulates. He intended the 1543 diagram of the human rete mirabile as an example of a mistake that resulted from Galen’s overreliance on animals as models of human anatomy. However, in spite of Vesalius’s intentions, for more than a century afterward, his figure was repeatedly and perversely plagiarized by advocates for Galenic doctrine, who misused it as a purportedly realistic representation of human anatomy and generally omitted the contrary opinions of Berengario da Carpi and Vesalius. The protracted use of stereotyped representations of the rete mirabile in extant printed illustrations provides tangible documentation of the stagnation in anatomical thought in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Philately, world postage stamps, history of medicine, and anatomists

Philately deals with the study and assortment of postal stamps. However, there are no barriers for the connection between the history of medicine and philately. It is very much exciting to see the portraits of people of world-famous anatomists, medical reputation, medical inventions, welfare organizations of medicine, and diseases as postal stamps. Postal departments all over the world have supported the efforts of governments in creating awareness and spreading information on health topics and programs. Great Britain has issued the first stamp globally in the year 1840.[1] In India, from 1837 onward, the East India Company used hand-struck stamps. However, the first stamp in India was printed in 1854 by Victoria-George VI during British India. Before the era of telephones, computers, and mobile phones, postal letters were the best and only method of communication nationally and internationally. Postage stamps are the token offered for postal charges and they are also utilized to spread essential information about history, culture, awareness, and achievements.[2] The hobby of postal stamp collection is now changed to digital philately due to advanced technology. A total of 48,159 stamps from 184 countries are registered in the World Association for the Development of Philately (WADP).[2] In 1970, France released a postal stamp featuring a French professor of pharmacy, Pierre Joseph Pelletier, and his student, Joseph Coventou, who together prepared pure salts of quinine and tested them clinically. This postal stamp was released to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the discovery of quinine.[3] The highest number of entries in the WADP is by France (1258), followed by Japan (1106), and the other top entries included the USA (1096), Portugal (1029), Belgium (994), Great Britain (987), Australia (954), Hungary (915), Spain (849), and Romania (846). Indian stamps totaled 554 entries, and the least entry in the WADP Numbering System is by the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[2] During the 7th international conference of anatomy, which was held in New York City, USA, in 1960, Oscar V. Batson, who identified the vertebral venous system, was remembered.[4] Aristotle was published on a postal stamp from Greek and Galen in Yemen.[5] Leonardo da Vinci, who was instrumental in patenting the cross-sectional anatomy, was given on a stamp in France [Figure 1a]. Andreas Vesalius [Figure 1b][5] is considered the founder of modern anatomy, and World Anatomy Day is celebrated on every year, October 15, which is the death anniversary of him. World Anatomy Day is an initiative of “International Federation of Association of Anatomists.” The picture of Andreas Vesalius, which shows the surgical dissection of the upper extremity, was reproduced [Figure 1c].[5] Niels Stensen, who identified the duct of the parotid gland, was commemorated in Denmark in 1969.Figure 1: (a) Leonardo da Vinci in a French stamp; (b) Andreas Vesalius, the founder of modern anatomy; (c) the woodcut portrait of Andreas Vesalius, which shows the dissection of an upper limb[5]Although philately will not cover the whole historical anatomists and medicine, whatever published pictures on the postal stamps will introduce the world famous academicians and scientists into the fascinating medical field and the history of human anatomy.[5]

Volumetric MRI Evaluation of Pituitary Gland in North Indian Subjects with Non-diseased Pituitary: Setting the Standards for Normative Data

Introduction The pituitary gland, also called the master gland, was first described by a Belgian scientist Andreas Vesalius in 1543. Pituitary gland is the engine of normal human physiology and its size and volume changes normally during various physiological stages as well as in various pathological processes, so it becomes imperative to have a normal reference value for a particular population to differentiate the normal and pathological pituitary gland. It is a tiny endocrine gland and is found in sella turcica (meaning Turkish Saddle) of sphenoid. Our study was designed to obtain standardized reference values for the volumes of pituitary gland among North Indian population to analyze the potential diagnostic values of pituitary gland volumetric variation with respect to age and gender. The volume of the pituitary gland was measured using a thin section three dimensional (3D) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with a section thickness of 1 mm. Methods The study was conducted between 2018-21 on patients with non-diseased pituitary by performing T1-multiplanar sequence and calculating pituitary volume by using Di chiro & Nelson formula. MRI was performed on a Siemens 3 Tesla MRI scanner unit. High resolution Multiplanar-T1 Weighted images were obtained with following parameters: Slice thickness: 1 mm, Acquisition plane: Sagittal & Coronal TR 1180 MS, TE 4.4 MS, Flip angle: 15 degrees, Matrix size: 256 × 256, FOV: 24 × 24 cm. Volume = 0.52 × Depth in Sagittal Plane × Height in Sagittal Plane × Width in Coronal Plane Results There were 152 patients included in the study. The mean age of participants was 43.50 years. Age group of 20-30 years comprised the maximum number of patient’s .The overall mean pituitary volume was 277.96 mm3 and in males the mean pituitary was 267.74 mm3 while in females the mean volume was 288.74 mm3. The largest pituitary gland volumes were 401.94 mm3 and 369.86 mm3 in females and males respectively in 10–20-year group while 319.18 mm3 and 360.49 mm3 in females and males respectively in 20-30 years age group. Beyond 70 years and children age group less than 10 years showed the smallest pituitary. Mean pituitary depth was 9.40 mm. Mean pituitary width was 8.81 mm.

Summarizing the medieval anatomy of the head and brain in a single image: Magnus Hundt (1501) and Johann Dryander (1537) as transitional pre-Vesalian anatomists

ABSTRACT Of the early-sixteenth century pre-Vesalian anatomists, Magnus Hundt in 1501 and Johannes Eichmann (known as Johann Dryander) in 1537 both attempted to summarize the anatomy of the head and brain in a single complex figure. Dryander clearly based his illustration on the earlier one from Hundt, but he made several improvements, based in part on Dryander’s own dissections. Whereas Hundt’s entire monograph was medieval in character, Dryander’s monograph was a mixture of medieval and early-modern frameworks; nevertheless, the corresponding illustrations of the anatomy of the head and brain in Hundt (1501) and Dryander (Dryandrum 1537) were both essentially medieval. This article examines in detail the symbology of both illustrations within the context of the medieval framework for neuroanatomy and neurophysiology. These two woodcuts of the head and brain provide the most detailed pictorial representation of medieval cranial anatomy in a printed book prior to the work of Andreas Vesalius in 1543.

Historical Vignette: Andreas Vesalius and Head Injuries in Royalty.

Historical Vignette: Andreas Vesalius and Head Injuries in Royalty.

Skinned St. Bartholomew before (1541) and after (1556, 1562) Fabrica (1543).

When I visited Rome before the coronavirus pandemic, I saw St. Bartholomew depicted in “Last Judgment” in the whole altar wall of the Sistine Chapel in Vatican City. The face on the St. Bartholomew's skin is usually recognized as being a self-portrait of Michelangelo. Michelangelo began to perform his own dissections and demonstrations (Condivi, 1976). The last city of my journey was Milan. In the Duomo of Milan (the Milan Cathedral), an anatomical statue intrigued me: St. Bartholomew statue by Marco d'Agrate. Because it was very similar to the anatomy in the Fabrica (De humani corporis fabrica libri septem) of Vesalius (1543, Plate 27, Figure 1, upper right), I read the text of the exhibition and compared it with Fabrica on my return. I searched for the images of “St. Bartholomew,” representative and anatomical statues or paintings before and after 1543 and selected Michelangelo and Marco d'Agrate to explain the influence of Fabrica. In the Renaissance, anatomical science was a major source of inspiration for artists. By the 15th century, interest had emerged in anatomy as an area of research, and the artists of the period dissected cadavers. Artists performed dissections in order to pursue divine beauty, in the belief that God created humankind in his image, whereas anatomists' goal was to gain scientific knowledge (Sellmer, 2001). St. Bartholomew was portrayed dressed holding a book and a knife up until the 13th to 14th centuries, alluding to the Gospel that he proclaimed and the martyrdom that he suffered. From the Renaissance onward, the iconography of St. Bartholomew with his skin removed from his flesh was finally sanctified after Michelangelo (1541) portrayed him in such a way in the “Last Judgment” in the Vatican's Sistine Chapel. It is notable that St. Bartholomew holds his skin in his left hand. However, he himself is not skinned at all, but covered with normal skin. Thereafter, the muscle underneath the skin is visualized as surface anatomy only. However, in the “Last Judgment,” he holds extra skin in his hand (Figure 1, upper left). Two years after the completion of the “Last Judgment,” Andreas Vesalius published his Fabrica (1543, Figure 1, upper right). Subsequently, 13 and 19 years after the publication of Fabrica, Marco d'Agrate made a bronze statue of St. Bartholomew in 1556, in front of the Certosa of Pavia (1556, Figure 1, lower left), and a marble statue in the Milano Duomo (1562, Figure 1, lower right), respectively. These works of Marco d'Agrate do not show any psychological introspection or give evidence of the deep faith expressed by the martyrdom of St. Bartholomew. However, they form part of a major 16th-century sphere of interest: the study and presentation of human anatomy (Veneranda Fabbrica del Duomo di Milano, 2018). By comparing the portrayal of St. Bartholomew in Michelangelo's fresco and d'Agrate's statues, we can see the how the publication of Fabrica contributed to art. Artists and anatomists together produced images of the body that combined medical knowledge and an artistic vision. When illustrated anatomical texts became readily available in the 17th century, the general enthusiasm of artists for studying cadavers decreased. This study was supported by a grant from National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2020R1I1A2054761). The author declares no potential conflict of interest.

Dániel Margócsy, Mark Somos, and Stephen N.Joffe (eds.) 2018: The Fabrica of Andreas Vesalius: AWorldwide Descriptive Census, Ownership, and Annotations of the 1543 and 1555 Editions : (Medieval and Early Modern Philosophy and Science, Vol.28). Leiden and Boston: Brillgeb., xix+517S., £ 146.00, ISBN:978-90-04-33629-2.

Dániel Margócsy, Mark Somos, and Stephen N.Joffe (eds.) 2018: The Fabrica of Andreas Vesalius: AWorldwide Descriptive Census, Ownership, and Annotations of the 1543 and 1555 Editions : (Medieval and Early Modern Philosophy and Science, Vol.28). Leiden and Boston: Brillgeb., xix+517S., £ 146.00, ISBN:978-90-04-33629-2.

The anatomy of the brain - learned over the centuries.

This article reports the evolution and consolidation of the knowledge of neuroanatomy through the analysis of its history. Thus, we propose to describe in a historical review to summarize the main theories and concepts that emerged throughout brain anatomy history and understand how the socio-historical context can reflect on the nature of scientific knowledge. Therefore, among the diverse scientists, anatomists, doctors, and philosophers who were part of this history, there was a strong influence of the studies of Claudius Galen (AD 129–210), Leonardo da Vinci (1452– 1519), Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), Franciscus Sylvius (1614–1672), Luigi Rolando (1773–1831), Pierre Paul Broca (1824–1880), Carl Wernicke (1848–1905), Korbinian Brodmann (1868–1918), Wilder Penfield (1891–1976), Mahmut Gazi Yasargil (1925), and Albert Loren Rhoton Jr. (1932–2016) on the fundamentals of neuroanatomy.