Andes Research Articles

Multifunctional Plants: Ecosystem Services and Undervalued Knowledge of Biocultural Diversity in Rural Communities—Local Initiatives for Agroecological Transition in Chile

With the aim of contributing to the understanding of plants’ multifunctionality for sustainable agroecosystem management, the first part of this paper addresses the importance of functional biodiversity in the design of agroecological systems, including the local context in the generation of situated knowledge. The second part describes three participatory research experiences with local farmers across three locations in Chile. The first experience reports on the use of Dasyphyllum diacanthoides (endemic tree) as fodder. A second experience focuses on the establishment of Rosa spp. (invasive species) as an agroforestry system integrated into the landscape. Both experiences were collaborative efforts with farmer communities of the Andean Mountains in southern Chile. The final experience describes the use of different spontaneous aromatic and medicinal plants through biological corridors to encourage beneficial insects as natural controllers. All three research experiences reveal a lack of knowledge, decontextualization, and undervaluation of the biocultural diversity present in some traditional Chilean agroecosystems.

Critical Care in Older People in Low and Middle-Countries (LMICs): Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment (CGA) Protocol in Andes Mountains

Background: The number of older adults in ICU care is increasing. Nowadays, at least fifty percent of ICU patients are aged 65 years and older. The most frequent pathologies to be admitted to the ICU in older people include acute diseases, long-term conditions, and acute or chronic disease exacerbations. Furthermore, new clinical phenotypes, and geriatric syndromes (falls, frailty, immobility) result from the interaction of age-associated conditions and comorbidity. Severity of index disease, multimorbidity, premorbid functional status, frailty, nutritional status, and cognitive level are more important determinants of long-term outcome than chronological age. Comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA) is a recognized and useful instrument in the management of elderly patients. Methods: We present a protocol for a clinical trial on the application ofCGA in ICU in the Andes Mountains in Colombia, a Low and Middle-Income Country (LMIC). This protocol could provide valuable information for the integration of geriatrics into critical care and provide practical information on how to implement CGA in this context. Results: The selection criteria of the tools to be used during the assessment of the patients were based on the available literature review and on reviews about interdisciplinary team interventions in acute care services based on the CGA. Conclusion: The care of critically ill elderly patients in the ICU is challenging due to factors such as frailty, psychosocial vulnerability, cognitive impairment, dependence on activities of daily living, and the presence of geriatric syndromes which are important conditions for adverse health outcomes in the future. CGA technology could be considered an excellent tool for managing older people in ICU.

Molecular and morphometric data provide evidence of intraspecific variation in shape and pigmentation pattern in Otocinclus cocama (Siluriformes: Loricariidae) across major river drainages.

Otocinclus cocama, a uniquely colored species of the loricariid catfish genus Otocinclus described solely from the type locality in the lower Ucayali River in northern Peru, is reported occurring in the Tigre River, a tributary to the Marañón River that drains a different section of the Andean Mountain range in the western Amazon. Both populations differ in the number of dark bars spanning the flanks of the body, and we investigated whether these morphotypes constitute distinct species. The body shapes of populations from the Tigre and Ucayali rivers were compared using geometric morphometrics. Although principal component analysis detected a broad overlap between populations, multivariate analysis of variance and linear driscriminat analysis revealed a subtle differentiation between the populations of the two hydrographic basins. Average body shape of the Ucayali River population tend to be slightly higher than that of the Tigre River, with the caudal peduncle stretched vertically in the Ucayali population. Multivariate regression of shape and centroid size revealed an allometric effect of 10.7% (p < 0.001), suggesting that the variation between Tigre and Ucayali populations was purely shape variation. Molecular data of coI, cytb, nd2, and 16S mitochondrial genes indicated a nucleotide diversity range from 0.001 to 0.003, and haplotypic diversity range from 0.600 ± 0.11 to 0.79 ± 0.07. The median-joining haplotype network for the concatenated matrix exhibited two divergent haplogroups related to the geographic area and separated by <10 mutational steps. The molecular species delimitation methods based on distance (automatic barcode gap discovery and assemble species by automatic partitioning) recovered two molecular lineages evolving independently, being one of the lineages formed by individuals from both populations. Tree-based methods (generalized mixed Yule coalescent and Bayesian implementation of the Poisson tree process) recovered similar topologies and supported single lineage recognition. Methods of molecular delimitation of species disclosed the high similarity between the two populations of Otocinclus cocama, further supported by the presence of old haplotypes common to both groups which could indicate that the populations still maintain gene flow. Although the morphological data reveal a subtle variation between both river basins, the molecular data suggest a weak population structuration based on hydrographic areas, but not different species lineages, therefore Otocinclus cocama is composed of a single lineage with two distinct morphotypes.

Hitos patagónicos: historia social de la Comisión Argentina de Límites con Chile (1881-1903)

In 1881 Argentina and Chile signed a treaty to resolve the issue over their common border, establishing the Andes Mountains as the dividing line. The demarcation was carried out by commissions created in each country. We will address the Social History of the Comisión Argentína de Límites con Chile in Patagonia. Our main source is the Fondo Documental Juan Moreteau, which includes the material gathered by this mining engineer who was part of the subcommittees that demarcated the Patagonian limit. Our hypothesis is that the construction of the border was far from linear, involving multiple agents and networks. Furthermore, we consider that the Commission and its subcommittees operated as an extension of the State in the region. We address the experiences and conditions of the work, within the framework of the commissioners’ discussions and interpretations of the limit. In this way, we propose to historicize the construction of the “natural” border.

Evaluation of climate-change impacts on the temporal and spatial behaviour of drought in South-Central Chile

ABSTRACT Chile is particularly vulnerable to climate change due to its geomorphology, ecological wealth and economic dependence on water resources, and has been facing a severe drought since 2010. The objective of this work is to propose a methodology able to project and evaluate changes in the magnitude, duration and frequency of meteorological and hydrological droughts, as a decision-making tool to support adaptation to climate change. Four basins were assessed using different downscaled General Circulation Models (GCM) and the Soil & Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. Results were evaluated using Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and Standardized Streamflow Index (SSFI) comparing drought events over two periods of time. An increase in magnitude and duration of meteorological droughts is projected, especially in the Andes Mountain range. Regarding hydrological drought, greater increases in magnitude and duration are projected for the Itata River Basin. In both types of droughts, an increase in frequency is expected.

Capitana mine, Tignamar district, a unique tin – bismuth concentration in the Chilean Central Andes, 250 km west of the Bolivian Tin Belt: Link to the Proterozoic-Paleozoic basement Belen inlier and the Arequipa-Antofalla terrane, a probable remnant of Laurentia

The Capitana mine, Tignamar District, is a unique Sn-Bi concentration in the highlands of Arica, in the Chilean Central Andes. Tin deposits associated with Triassic to Pliocene age igneous rocks are plentiful in the Tin Belt of Peru, Bolivia, and NW Argentina, but have not been reported in Chile, where contemporaneous rocks formed metallogenic belts rich in Fe, Cu, Mo, Ag and Au. We describe vein ore from Capitana mine, a small but exceptional Sn-bearing Pb-Bi-Ag-Cu-Sb-As epithermal deposit in the Tignamar (or Ticnamar) district in the high Andes of Arica, Chile, ca. 250 km west of the Bolivian Tin Belt. Fluid inclusions in vein quartz trapped a non-boiling, low salinity (<∼4 wt% NaCl equiv.), moderate T fluid (minimum T ∼ 220 °C) prior to metal precipitation. Flashing of this fluid, likely due to rapid changes in confining P, was synchronous with metal deposition; sulfosalt textures show evidence of syn-deformational growth. Although located within a district considered a porphyry copper system of Early Miocene age, it is likely that the Capitana deposit formed later, mainly as a result of regional hydrothermal activity related to compressive and transpressional tectonics as young as Pliocene. Common lead is 206Pb/204Pb 18.18; 207Pb/204Pb 15.61; and 208Pb/204Pb 38.53, significantly less radiogenic than that of Bolivian Sn deposits, and has a Paleozoic model lead age. These values point to affinities with a tectonically-emplaced inlier of crystalline basement of Proterozoic – Early Paleozoic age known as the Belen Metamorphic Complex, and with the Arequipa-Antofalla basement terrane, a probable remnant of Laurentia (North America), left behind during the dismemberment of the Rodinia Supercontinent. The complex mineralogy of Capitana vein, unlike other Chilean deposits, includes various sulphides and sulphosalts with Cu, Fe, Zn, Pb, Bi, Sn, Ag, As, Sb, Ga and In, and is exceptionally rich in U.

CMIP6 precipitation and temperature projections for Chile

AbstractPrecipitation and near-surface temperature from an ensemble of 36 new state‐of‐the‐art climate models under the Coupled Model Inter‐comparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6) are evaluated over Chile’s climate. The analysis is focused on four distinct climatic subregions: Northern Chile, Central Chile, Northern Patagonia, and Southern Patagonia. Over each of the subregions, first, we evaluate the performance of individual global climate models (GCMs) against a suit of precipitation and temperature observation-based gridded datasets over the historical period (1986–2014) and then we analyze the models’ projections for the end of the century (2080–2099) for four different shared socioeconomic pathways scenarios (SSP). Although the models are characterized by general wet and warm mean bias, they reproduce realistically the main spatiotemporal climatic variability over different subregions. However, none of the models is best across all subregions for both precipitation and temperature. Moreover, among the best performing models defined based on the Taylor skill score, one finds the so-called “hot models” likely exhibiting an overestimated climate sensitivity, which suggests caution in using these models for accessing future climate change in Chile. We found robust (90% of models agree in the direction of change) projected end-of-the-century reductions in mean annual precipitation for Central Chile (~ − 20 to ~ − 40%) and Northern Patagonia (~ − 10 to ~ − 30%) under scenario SSP585, but changes are strong from scenario SSP245 onwards, where precipitation is reduced by 10–20%. Northern Chile and Southern Patagonia show non-robust changes in precipitation across the models. Yet, future near-surface temperature warming presented high inter-model agreement across subregions, where the greatest increments occurred along the Andes Mountains. Northern Chile displays the strongest increment of up to ~ 6 °C in SSP585, followed by Central Chile (up to ~ 5 °C). Both Northern and Southern Patagonia show a corresponding increment by up to ~ 4 °C. We also briefly discuss about the environmental and socio-economic implications of these future changes for Chile.

Climate change impacts on renewable groundwater resources in the andosol-dominated Andean highlands, Ecuador

Climate change, coupled with adaptive human actions, will affect water resource access and availability for environmental requirements. Hydrological modelling is an effective strategy for forecasting climate and human impacts on water resources. Modelling tools are advised for sparse-data mountainous basins intended to supply densely populated urban areas in the future. In this context, the SWAT model is used to evaluate the impact of climate change on renewable groundwater resources in the Pita River basin (PRB), a representative area of the andosol-dominated páramo ecosystem in the Andean highlands projected to meet future water demand in the metropolitan district of Quito (MDQ), Ecuador. Based on data availability, a SWAT model is configured for the PRB over the period 2006–2015 and five regional climate models (RCMs) based on two Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) emission scenarios (4.5 and 8.5) for the mid- (2040–2069) and long-term (2070–2099) future horizons are implemented. Hydrological modelling demonstrates increases in average temperature and precipitation of + 2 °C and + 3 % in the mid-term and + 4.5 °C and + 20 % in the long term, respectively. All the RCMs indicate less aquifer recharge in the mid-term. However, this pattern is softened, and even reversed, in several scenarios in the long term. Seasonal differences in streamflow and aquifer recharge in the baseline scenario are predicted to increase to + 23 %. The natural hydrological regime determined by thick porous allophane-rich andosols over virtually full moderate-permeability volcanic and volcano-sedimentary aquifers induces high streamflow and low aquifer recharge rates. Future hydrological regime could place the highly sensitive soil–vegetation dynamics of the páramo ecosystem at risk of degradation, with negative consequences for habitat preservation, in general, and stream water provision, in particular. Hence, groundwater is the safest option for water provision in the future.

Strategic Minerals for Climate Change and the Energy Transition: The Mining Contribution of Colombia

To transition to carbon neutrality by the year 2050, copper, lithium, rare earths, cobalt, nickel, and silver are essential due to their use in the manufacture of electric cars, lithium batteries, wind turbines, solar panels, motors, and electrical wiring. The main goal of this study is to carry out a mining approach of the prospective areas of Colombia with strategic minerals for energy transition and climate change, analyzing the geospatial location, mining rights, mineral extraction, and royalty collection. Open data from SGC, ANM, and SIMCO geoportals were consulted. The prospective areas totaled 311,535.2 km2, equivalent to 27.3% of Colombia, and were located mainly in the Andes Mountains. The total area of mining rights and applications with strategic minerals for the energy transition is 112,802.2 km2 or 9.9% of Colombia, representing 5731 rights and 3939 applications. From 2012 to 2023, 448,330 tons of nickel, 172.9 tons of silver, and 171.6 tons of copper were mined in Colombia, which has contributed USD 513,140,286 as royalties to the state. No royalties have been earned from the extraction of rare earths, lithium, or cobalt. Fulfilling the Paris Agreement is possible with new sustainable mining projects of strategic minerals.

The Production of Empty Space and Deserts in the South-Central Andean Highlands

Imaginaries serve as the foundational framework shaping representations and influencing societal perspectives, subsequently guiding specific practices. Within the realm of geographical imaginaries, this article adopted a geohistorical perspective, using periodicals, secondary sources, and contemporary digital media to shed light on the geography of the highlands of northern Chile. Our objective was to emphasize the representations that have discouraged the occupation of these mountainous regions. Our findings revealed the emergence of a geographic imaginary that attributes desert-like qualities to the entire northern region of Chile, extending beyond the “unpopulated area of Atacama”. This misleading characterization fails to distinguish desert areas from the topographic variations existing between the Andes and the Pacific coast. These representations, which have translated into depopulation practices, have stigmatized the highland areas as synonymous with desolation and inhospitality, seemingly unsuitable for daily life, social production, and reproduction potential. Consequently, both spaces and individuals have been objectified for development, perpetuating the capitalist system as the dominant mode of production.

A new view of hillforts in the Andes: expanding coverage with systematic imagery survey

In the Andean highlands, hilltop fortifications known as pukaras are common. Dating predominantly to the Late Intermediate Period (AD 1000–1450), pukaras are important to archaeological characterisations of a political landscape shaped by conflict but the distribution of these key sites is not well understood. Here, the authors employ systematic satellite imagery survey to provide a contiguous picture of pukara distribution on an inter-regional scale covering 151 103km2 in the south-central highlands of Peru. They highlight the effectiveness of such survey at identifying pukaras and capturing regional variability in size and residential occupation, and the results demonstrate that satellite surveys of high-visibility sites can tackle research questions at larger scales of analysis than have previously been possible.

Pleistocene climatic oscillations influenced the emergence of geographically widespread and restricted genetic lineages in an Andean grasshopper species group

Abstract The grasshopper Trimerotropis pallidipennis species complex is distributed across arid and semi-arid environments from North to South America, reaching high altitudes along the Andes Mountain range. Currently, there are four valid species of Trimerotropis in South America. However, some species were found to comprise several genetic lineages. Here, we describe the genetic structure, lineage diversification, and environmental requirements within the Trimerotropis species complex in South America based on sequences from the mitochondrial COI gene, 4048 single nucleotide polymorphisms, and ecological niche modelling. The analyses revealed the existence of at least five lineages: two with a restricted geographical distribution and three with a very wide one. The results provide evidence that glacial cycles promoted not only the presence of refuge areas but also the isolation of widely distributed lineages on the eastern and western sides of the southern Andes, potentially driving the emergence of the Trimerotropis sp. lineage, which can tolerate more temperate habitats. Our results provide evidence for the effects of Pleistocene climatic changes on the diversification history of a South American grasshopper species complex.

A New Eyeless Species of Micranops Cameron 1913 from Bolivia (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Paederinae)

This work adds a new eyeless species of the genus Micranops Cameron, 1913 (Staphylinidae, Paederinae, Scopaeina) to the endogean Coleoptera of the Bolivian fauna. The loss of eyes is usually associated with adaptations to subterranean habitats, although M. bolivianus Guzman & Żyła sp. nov. was collected from leaf litter. We also report new occurrences for the genus west of the Andes mountain range. Our work increases the number of known Neotropical Micranops species to seven and extends the known distribution range for the genus in South America.

On Psalmopoeus Pocock, 1895 (Araneae, Theraphosidae) species and tarantula conservation in Ecuador.

Two novel species of Psalmopoeus Pocock, 1895 are described from the north-western and central-western slopes of the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes mountain range in Ecuador. The new species are easily differentiated from other congeners of Psalmopoeus by spermathecae and male palpal bulb morphology and a comparatively distant distribution to the type localities of the geographically nearest known congeners. The diagnosis of P.ecclesiasticus Pocock, 1093 is revised and updated, considering the novel species and observations on spermatheca of this species. Likewise, an evaluation is provided for the new species in terms of conservation due to the various threats impacting ecosystems and ecosystem services of their type localities. Finally, the importance of theraphosid spiders in Ecuador and South America and their possible conservation requirements are discussed and assessed.

The type of Setophaga ruficoronata (Kaup 1851) is a hybrid: implications for the taxonomy of Myioborus warblers (Passeriformes: Parulidae).

Hybridization, rapid diversification, and uncertainties surrounding type specimens add complexity to the already intricate taxonomy of high Andean Myioborus warblers of northern South America. In this study, we propose a reassessment of species boundaries within M. ornatus and M. melanocephalus, drawing on comparisons of name-bearing types. We also consider insights from a recent study of a hybrid zone in southern Colombia and northern Ecuador. We present three species delimitation alternatives that offer improved clarity compared to the current taxonomy, and discuss the rationale behind recognizing chrysops and bairdi as distinct species while redefining the species ornatus and melanocephalus, given the available evidence.

Citizen science data reveal altitudinal movement and seasonal ecosystem use by hummingbirds in the Andes Mountains

Ensuring connectivity is crucial to protect landscapes but it requires knowledge about how animals use ecosystems throughout the year. However, animal movements remain largely unknown in biodiversity hotspots, even for species that fulfill key ecological roles, as is the case of hummingbirds in the Andes. In the complex topography of mountain slopes, movement of these avian pollinators may occur either between habitat patches with asynchronous plant blooms or across ecosystems that are located within the same elevation bands or along altitudinal gradients. Here, we used two decades (2000–2020) of records from citizen science data and boosted regression trees to predict monthly distributions for 55 hummingbird species in the Andes. We identified shifts in altitudinal distribution between contiguous months and calculated changes in the proportion of predicted distributions occupied by ecosystem types. Our findings reveal substantial altitudinal movement and differences in the proportion of ecosystem types utilized throughout the year that had not been previously reported for several species. Yet the magnitude of altitudinal and ecosystem shifts varies between hummingbird clades, and in some cases changes in the proportion of ecosystem types within estimated distributions occurs with little variation in altitude. All ecosystems across the Andes show temporal changes in hummingbird occurrence, but these are higher in natural landscapes compared to croplands or urban areas. Finally, we used phylogenetic logistic regression to test whether altitudinal and ecosystem shifts affect population trends. We found that higher ecosystem seasonality is more strongly associated with decreasing populations in comparison to altitudinal shifts. Altogether, our study reveals complex patterns of movement in hummingbirds and highlights the importance of ecological connectivity across different ecosystem types. More generally, it demonstrates the opportunity of using citizen science data to increase understanding about species' seasonal occurrences, so that landscapes can be better managed to protect animal movement.Keywords: boosted regression trees, eBird, ecological connectivity, species distribution models

La despensa nacional: Quinoa and the Spatial Contradictions of Peru’s Gastronomic Revolution

AbstractThis article explores the spatial politics of Peru’s gastronomic revolution and corresponding efforts to territorialize Peruvian agricultural products by tracing the spatial dynamics of quinoa’s trajectory from highland dietary staple to coveted national food. Efforts to codify Peru’s national cuisine have involved mapping ingredients and dishes onto specific regions while dramatically reshaping agricultural production geographies and culinary topographies. Because of quinoa’s success as a high-value export crop, the Peruvian altiplano is no longer perceived as a landscape useful exclusively for livestock pasture and mining. Instead, it is imagined as agriculturally productive: the country’s quinoa heartland. At the same time, quinoa’s trajectory illuminates spatial contradictions in the gastronomic boom’s purported objectives and its tangible effects. The revalorization of quinoa led to a geographical expansion of its production outside the high Andes, undermining the spatially bound concepts of authenticity promoted by gastronomic leaders in Peru. Broadly, efforts to commercialize marginalized food products and their corresponding regions can at once reconfigure territorial discourses in important ways, reinforce long-standing geographical inequalities, and generate contestations of the geographic imaginaries of food and nation.

The Andean Ibis (Theristicus branickii) in South America: potential distribution, presence in protected areas and anthropic threats

The avifauna of South America is one of the most widely studied groups of vertebrates. However, certain species, such as the Andean Ibis (Theristicus branickii), have received limited attention regarding their ecological patterns, biology, current distribution, and environmental requirements. This study analyzed observation data from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) on the Andean Ibis in four countries to identify and understand critical variables that determine the species’ presence, assess the proportion of its habitat within protected areas and identify possible threats to the species. Additionally, this study considered environmental and ecological variables to model ecological niches using the maximum entropy approach in MaxEnt to map the suitable habitat of the species. The findings revealed the extent of suitable Andean Ibis habitats in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile. The variables that most determined the presence of the species were: altitude (36.57%), distance to lakes (23.29%) and ecological isothermality (13.34%). The distribution area of the Andean Ibis totaled 300,095.00 km2, spanning both sides of the Andean mountains range. Human activities have left a significant impact on the Andean Ibis habitat, with 48% of this area impacted by the human footprint and only 10% of the territory falling within protected areas designated by the respective countries. The results of this study show that the Andean Ibis presents characteristics of a specialist species due to its adaptation to the climate conditions of the plateau and highlands, including low temperatures, herbaceous vegetation and the presence of water bodies. The species is distributed in disconnected Andean landscape areas, whose functionality could be compromised by increased human activities. Complementary studies will be necessary to understand the ecological role and effectiveness of protected areas for conserving the species.

Genomic data of global clones of CTX-M-65-producing Escherichia coli ST10 from South American llamas inhabiting the Andean Highlands of Peru

The global spread of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESβL)-producing Escherichia coli has been considered a One Health issue that demands continuous genomic epidemiology surveillance in humans and non-human hosts. To report the occurrence and genomic data of ESβL-producing E. coli strains isolated from South American llamas inhabiting a protected area with public access in the Andean Highlands of Peru. Two ESβL-producing E. coli strains (E. coli L1LB and L2BHI) were identified by MALDI-TOF. Genomic DNAs were extracted and sequenced using the Illumina NextSeq platform. De novo assembly was performed by CLC Genomic Workbench and in silico prediction was accomplished by curated bioinformatics tools. SNP-based phylogenomic analysis was performed using publicly available genomes of global E. coli ST10. Escherichia coli L1LB generated a total of 4 000 11 and L2BHI a total of 4 002 54 paired-end reads of ca.164 × and ca. 157 ×, respectively. Both E. coli strains were assigned to serotype O8:H4, fimH41, and ST10. The blaCTX-M-65 ESβL gene, along with other medically important antimicrobial resistance genes, was predicted. Broad virulomes, including the presence of the astA gene, were confirmed. The phylogenomic analysis revealed that E. coli L1LB and L2BHI strains are closely related to isolates from companion animals and human hosts, as well as environmental strains, previously reported in North America, South America, Africa, and Asia. Presence of ESβL-producing E. coli ST10 in South American camelids with historical and cultural importance supports successful expansion of international clones of priority pathogens in natural areas with public access.

Comprehensive inventory of páramo birds and their habitat affinities in a conservation hotspot, the Macizo del Cajas Biosphere Reserve, southern Ecuador

The páramo ecosystem is a significant centre of Andean bird diversity with high concentrations of threatened species. The Macizo del Cajas Biosphere Reserve’s páramos are a district of the biogeographic páramo province of northern Andes and are therefore considered a conservation hotspot with representative bird diversity. To enhance regional conservation efforts, comprehensive inventories of bird species that occupy this páramo are required. We present an updated bird inventory for the páramos of Macizo del Cajas and included validated records from eBird and GBIF databases along with records from continuous monitoring across this páramo landscape for five years. We also provide notes on habitat affinity and important new, rare, restricted range, and threatened birds. We report 112 bird species within the reserve, including five endemics, and three globally and 12 nationally threatened species. Finally, we discuss the use of habitat affinities as indicators of biodiversity patterns in páramo to improve conservation tools for key habitats.