Andean Tributaries Research Articles

A new cryptic species of Imparfinis (Siluriformes: Heptapteridae) from the Orinoco River basin, revealed by an iterative approach.

An iterative analysis of Imparfinis, combining phylogenetic analysis based on cytochrome oxidase gene and multivariate morphometrics, revealed a new cryptic species from the Andean tributaries of the Orinoco River basin, which is described here. The new species is sister to a clade constituted by Imparfinis hasemani and Imparfinis pijpersi, both from the river basins of the Guiana Shield, being also the most geographically proximate species. Nonetheless, the new species is most similar in general appearance to Imparfinis guttatus from the Madeira and Paraguay River drainages, being almost undistinguishable by conventional characters of external morphology, differing only by morphometric attributes overall. The new species can be distinguished from the remaining congeners by a unique combination of characters, including lower lobe of caudal fin darker than upper lobe, maxillary barbel reaching or surpassing pelvic-fin insertion, 12-15 gill rakers on first gill arch, 40-42 total vertebrae and 9-10 ribs. The new species constitutes the only representative from the Orinoco River basin belonging to Imparfinis sensu stricto.

Unveiling biogeographical patterns of the ichthyofauna in the Tuichi basin, a biodiversity hotspot in the Bolivian Amazon, using environmental DNA.

To date, more than 2400 valid fish species have been recorded in the Amazon basin. However, some regions remain poorly documented. This is the case in the Beni basin and in particular in one of its main sub-basins, the Tuichi, an Andean foothills rivers flowing through the Madidi National Park in the Bolivian Amazonia. The knowledge of its ichthyological diversity is, however, essential for the management and protection of aquatic ecosystems, which are threatened by the development of infrastructures (dams, factories and cities), mining and deforestation. Environmental DNA (eDNA) has been relatively little used so far in the Amazon basin. We sampled eDNA from water in 34 sites in lakes and rivers in the Beni basin including 22 sites in the Tuichi sub-basin, during the dry season. To assess the biogeographical patterns of the amazonian ichthyofauna, we implemented a metabarcoding approach using two pairs of specific primers designed and developed in our laboratory to amplify two partially overlapping CO1 fragments, one of 185bp and another of 285bp. We detected 252 fish taxa (207 at species level) among which 57 are newly identified for the Beni watershed. Species compositions are significantly different between lakes and rivers but also between rivers according to their hydrographic rank and altitude. Furthermore, the diversity patterns are related to the different hydro-ecoregions through which the Tuichi flows. The eDNA approach makes it possible to identify and complete the inventory of the ichthyofauna in this still poorly documented Amazon basin. However, taxonomic identification remains constrained by the lack of reference barcodes in public databases and does not allow the assignment of all OTUs. Our results can be taken into account in conservation and management strategies and could serve as a baseline for future studies, including on other Andean tributaries.

A new species of Pimelodella Eigenmann amp; Eigenmann, 1888 (Siluriformes: Heptapteridae) from the Orinoco River basin.

A new species of Pimelodella is described from western Andean tributaries of the Orinoco River basin. The new species differs from all congeners by a unique set of characters that includes long maxillary barbel, surpassing the dorsal lobe of the caudal fin; relatively short adipose fin (32.8-36.4 of SL); 40-42 total vertebrae; posterior margin of pectoral-fin spine with 12-18 retrorse dentations along basal two thirds; laterosensory canal foramina of dentary and preopercle large and externally conspicuous; a brown faint and narrow midlateral stripe extending from the pseudotympanum, fading posteriorly along the caudal peduncle, and ending as a spot at the caudal-fin base; and dorsal-fin base darkly pigmented, from spinelet to posteriormost interradial membrane. Taxonomic status of P. pallida and presence of P. cruxenti in Colombia are also discussed.

Hafnium and neodymium isotopes and REY distribution in the truly dissolved, nanoparticulate/colloidal and suspended loads of rivers in the Amazon Basin, Brazil

Radiogenic isotopes in river sediments and river waters have been widely used in provenance studies, as these samples naturally integrate the geology/chemistry of the entire catchment. While the Hf and Nd isotope systems are coupled during igneous processes, they are decoupled during supergene processes at the Earth’s surface, which is reflected by the isotope composition of riverine sediments. We present the first data for both Hf and Nd isotope compositions of the dissolved (0.2μm-filtrates rich in nanoparticles and colloids, NPCs) and the truly dissolved (1kDa-ultrafiltrates) load of rivers. Hafnium and Nd isotope compositions and concentrations of the Rare Earths and Yttrium (REY) and Hf were determined for suspended particles (>0.2μm) as well as for the dissolved and the truly dissolved load of the Rio Solimões, the Amazon’s largest tributary draining the Andes, and of the Rio Negro, an organic NPC- and particle-rich river draining the rainforest of northern Amazonia. We also analyzed the Nd isotope compositions of suspended sediments and 0.2μm-filtered water samples from the Amazon River and its tributaries Rio Tapajos, Rio Xingu and Rio Jari.Our novel results clearly show that the decoupling of the Hf and Nd isotope systems is related to incongruent weathering processes on the continent, as this decoupling can already be observed in the different Hf and Nd pools, i.e. in the particulate, the NPC-dominated dissolved and the truly dissolved load of rivers. In the Rio Negro and Rio Solimões, a strong particle size-dependent difference in Hf isotope composition is observed. Values of εHf become more radiogenic as filter poresize decreases, which can be related to the density- and size-dependent distribution of Hf-rich minerals, e.g. zircons, and their absence from the truly dissolved pool. In contrast, the Nd isotope composition of Amazonian river waters reflects that of their catchment geology. Tributaries draining the Precambrian Brazilian and Guyana shields show very unradiogenic εNd values of −19 to −25 in their dissolved load, whereas the Rio Solimões draining the Andes yields a more radiogenic εNd signal of only −7. The dissolved Nd isotope composition of the Amazon is dominated by its Andean tributaries and averages at −8. Although Nd isotope compositions are thought to not being fractionated by Earth surface processes, significant differences of 1.3–1.9 ε-units can be observed between the dissolved and suspended loads in the Amazon River and its main tributary, the Rio Solimões. In these rivers, the dissolved load is more radiogenic than the suspended sediment, which is likely due to incongruent weathering and related mineral sorting in the Andean headwaters. In contrast, the organic-rich and mineral-poor shield rivers do not show a difference between the truly dissolved, dissolved and suspended load, as the Nd in all these pools is controlled by surface- and solution-complexation and hence isotopically homogenized by continuous exchange and re-equilibration.

Hydroclimatology of the Upper Madeira River basin: spatio-temporal variability and trends

ABSTRACTRising in the Andes, the Madeira River drains the southwestern part of the Amazon basin, which is characterized by high geographical, biological and climatic diversity. This study uses daily records to assess the spatio-temporal runoff variability in the Madeira sub-basins. Results show that inter-annual variability of both discharge and rainfall differs between Andean and lowland tributaries. High-flow discharge variability in the Andean tributaries and the Guaporé River is mostly related to sea surface temperature (SST) in the equatorial Pacific in austral summer, while tropical North Atlantic (TNA) SST modulates rainfall and discharge variability in the lowlands. There also is a downward trend in the low-flow discharge of the lowland tributaries which is not observed in the Andes. Because low-flow discharge values at most lowland stations are negatively related to the SST in the tropical North Atlantic, these trends could be explained by the warming of this ocean since the 1970s.EDITOR A. CastellarinASSOCIATE EDITOR A. Viglione

Multilocus molecular phylogeny of the ornamental wood-eating catfishes (Siluriformes, Loricariidae, Panaqolus and Panaque) reveals undescribed diversity and parapatric clades

Approximately two-dozen species in three genera of the Neotropical suckermouth armored catfish family Loricariidae are the only described fishes known to specialize on diets consisting largely of wood. We conducted a molecular phylogenetic analysis of 10 described species and 14 undescribed species or morphotypes assigned to the wood-eating catfish genus Panaqolus, and four described species and three undescribed species or morphotypes assigned to the distantly related wood-eating catfish genus Panaque. Our analyses included individuals and species from both genera that are broadly distributed throughout tropical South America east of the Andes Mountains and 13 additional genera hypothesized to have also descended from the most recent common ancestor of Panaqolus and Panaque. Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses of two mitochondrial and three nuclear loci totaling 4293bp confirmed respective monophyly of Panaqolus, exclusive of the putative congener ‘Panaqolus’ koko, and Panaque. Members of Panaqolus sensu stricto were distributed across three strongly monophyletic clades: a clade of 10 generally darkly colored, lyretail species distributed across western headwaters of the Amazon Basin, a clade of three irregularly and narrowly banded species from the western Orinoco Basin, and a clade of 11 generally brown, broadly banded species that are widely distributed throughout the Amazon Basin. We erect new subgenera for each of these clades and a new genus for the morphologically, biogeographically and ecologically distinct species ‘Panaqolus’ koko. Our finding that perhaps half of the species-level diversity in the widespread genus Panaqolus remains undescribed illustrates the extent to which total taxonomic diversity of small and philopatric, yet apparently widely distributed, Amazonian fishes may remain underestimated. Ranges for two Panaqolus subgenera and the genus Panaque overlap with the wood-eating genus Cochliodon in central Andean tributaries of the upper Amazon Basin, which appear to be a global epicenter of wood-eating catfish diversity.

Fishes and aquatic habitats of the Orinoco River Basin: diversity and conservation.

About 1000 freshwater fishes have been found so far in the Orinoco River Basin of Venezuela and Colombia. This high ichthyological diversity reflects the wide range of landscapes and aquatic ecosystems included in the basin. Mountain streams descend from the high Andes to become rapid-flowing foothill rivers that burst out upon vast savannah flatlands where they slowly make their way to the sea. These white-water rivers are heavily laden with sediments from the geologically young Andes. Because their sediment deposits have formed the richest soils of the basin, they have attracted the highest density of human populations, along with the greatest levels of deforestation, wildfires, agricultural biocides and fertilizers, sewage and all the other impacts associated with urban centres, agriculture and cattle ranching. In the southern portion of the basin, human populations are much smaller, where often the only inhabitants are indigenous peoples. The ancient rocks and sands of the Guiana Shield yield clear and black water streams of very different quality. Here, sediment loads are miniscule, pH is very acid and fish biomass is only a fraction of that observed in the rich Andean tributaries to the north. For each region of the basin, the current state of knowledge about fish diversity is assessed, fish sampling density evaluated, the presence of endemic species and economically important species (for human consumption or ornamental purposes) described and gaps in knowledge are pointed out. Current trends in the fishery for human consumption are analysed, noting that stocks of many species are in steep decline, and that current fishing practices are not sustainable. Finally, the major impacts and threats faced by the fishes and aquatic ecosystems of the Orinoco River Basin are summarized, and the creation of bi-national commissions to promote standardized fishing laws in both countries is recommended.

Amazon River dissolved load: temporal dynamics and annual budget from the Andes to the ocean.

The aim of the present study is to estimate the export fluxes of major dissolved species at the scale of the Amazon basin, to identify the main parameters controlling their spatial distribution and to identify the role of discharge variability in the variability of the total dissolved solid (TDS) flux through the hydrological cycle. Data are compiled from the monthly hydrochemistry and daily discharge database of the "Programa Climatologico y Hidrologico de la Cuenca Amazonica de Bolivia" (PHICAB) and the HYBAM observatories from 34 stations distributed over the Amazon basin (for the 1983-1992 and 2000-2012 periods, respectively). This paper consists of a first global observation of the fluxes and temporal dynamics of each geomorphological domain of the Amazon basin. Based on mean interannual monthly flux calculations, we estimated that the Amazon basin delivered approximately 272 × 10(6)tyear(-1) (263-278) of TDS during the 2003-2012 period, which represents approximately 7% of the continental inputs to the oceans. This flux is mainly made up by HCO3, Ca and SiO2, reflecting the preferential contributions of carbonate and silicate chemical weathering to the Amazon River Basin. The main tributaries contributing to the TDS flux are the Marañon and Ucayali Rivers (approximately 50% of the TDS production over 14% of the Amazon basin area) due to the weathering of carbonates and evaporites drained by their Andean tributaries. An Andes-sedimentary area-shield TDS flux (and specific flux) gradient is observed throughout the basin and is first explained by the TDS concentration contrast between these domains, rather than variability in runoff. This observation highlights that, under tropical context, the weathering flux repartition is primarily controlled by the geomorphological/geological setting and confirms that sedimentary areas are currently active in terms of the production of dissolved load. The log relationships of concentration vs discharge have been characterized over all the studied stations and for all elements. The analysis of the slope of the relationship within the selected contexts reveals that the variability in TDS flux is mainly controlled by the discharge variability throughout the hydrological year. At the outlet of the basin, a clockwise hysteresis is observed for TDS concentration and is mainly controlled by Ca and HCO3 hysteresis, highlighting the need for a sampling strategy with a monthly frequency to accurately determine the TDS fluxes of the basin. The evaporite dissolution flux tends to be constant, whereas dissolved load fluxes released from other sources (silicate weathering, carbonate weathering, biological and/or atmospheric inputs) are mainly driven by variability in discharge. These results suggest that past and further climate variability had or will have a direct impact on the variability of dissolved fluxes in the Amazon. Further studies need to be performed to better understand the processes controlling the dynamics of weathering fluxes and their applicability to present-day concentration-discharge relationships at longer timescales.

A new catfish species of the genus Trichomycterus (Siluriformes: Trichomycteridae) from the río Orinoco versant of Páramo de Cruz Verde, Eastern Cordillera of Colombia

A new Trichomycterus is described from a highland tributary of the río Meta (Orinoco basin), along the east flank of Páramo de Cruz Verde, Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. The new species is distinguished from most of its congeners by having a reduced posterior cranial fontanel, restricted to the parieto-supraoccipital, cleithrum pierced by several foramina, and an unique combination of four irregular rows of conic teeth in premaxilla and dentary, 13-14 opercular odontodes, 41-43 interopercular odontodes, 6-7 branchiostegal rays, 40 or 41 free vertebrae, 14-18 ribs, first ray of pectoral fin slightly projected as a short filament, 7-8 branched pectoral-fin rays, dorsal-fin origin at same level of pelvic-fin insertion, anal-fin origin posterior to dorsal-fin base, caudal-fin margin slightly rounded, a single upper hypural plate (3+4+5), and coloration pattern consisting in ground color dark brown with a thin mid-lateral dark stripe. Phylogenetic relationships of the new species based on the shared presence of derived features related to posterior cranial fontanel and cleithrum are discussed. The new species is also compared to the only two described species from Andean tributaries of río Orinoco basin.

Terrigenous input off northern South America driven by changes in Amazonian climate and the North Brazil Current retroflection during the last 250 ka

Abstract. We investigate changes in the delivery and oceanic transport of Amazon sediments related to terrestrial climate variations over the last 250 ka. We present high-resolution geochemical records from four marine sediment cores located between 5 and 12° N along the northern South American margin. The Amazon River is the sole source of terrigenous material for sites at 5 and 9° N, while the core at 12° N receives a mixture of Amazon and Orinoco detrital particles. Using an endmember unmixing model, we estimated the relative proportions of Amazon Andean material ("%-Andes", at 5 and 9° N) and of Amazon material ("%-Amazon", at 12° N) within the terrigenous fraction. The %-Andes and %-Amazon records exhibit significant precessional variations over the last 250 ka that are more pronounced during interglacials in comparison to glacial periods. High %-Andes values observed during periods of high austral summer insolation reflect the increased delivery of suspended sediments by Andean tributaries and enhanced Amazonian precipitation, in agreement with western Amazonian speleothem records. Increased Amazonian rainfall reflects the intensification of the South American monsoon in response to enhanced land–ocean thermal gradient and moisture convergence. However, low %-Amazon values obtained at 12° N during the same periods seem to contradict the increased delivery of Amazon sediments. We propose that reorganizations in surface ocean currents modulate the northwestward transport of Amazon material. In agreement with published records, the seasonal North Brazil Current retroflection is intensified (or prolonged in duration) during cold substages of the last 250 ka (which correspond to intervals of high DJF or low JJA insolation) and deflects eastward the Amazon sediment and freshwater plume.

The riverine silicon isotope composition of the Amazon Basin

We present here the first large-scale study of riverine silicon isotope signatures in the Amazon Basin. The Amazon and five of its main tributaries were studied at different seasons of the annual hydrological cycle. The δ30Si signature of the dissolved silicon (DSi) exported to the estuary (weighted for DSi flux) for the period considered is estimated at +0.92‰. A river cross-section shows the homogeneity of the Amazon River regarding DSi concentration and isotope ratio. The biogenic silica (BSi) concentration measured in surface water from all rivers is generally small compared to the DSi reservoir but large variations exist between rivers. Very low isotope signatures were measured in the upper Rio Negro (δ30Si=+0.05±0.06‰), which we explain both by an equilibrium between clay formation and dissolution and by gibbsite formation. The Si isotope fractionation in the Andean tributaries and the Amazon main stem can be explained by clay formation and follow either a Rayleigh or a batch equilibrium fractionation model. Our results also suggest that the formation of 2:1 clays induces a fractionation factor similar to that of kaolinite formation.

Proliferation of Hydroelectric Dams in the Andean Amazon and Implications for Andes-Amazon Connectivity

Due to rising energy demands and abundant untapped potential, hydropower projects are rapidly increasing in the Neotropics. This is especially true in the wet and rugged Andean Amazon, where regional governments are prioritizing new hydroelectric dams as the centerpiece of long-term energy plans. However, the current planning for hydropower lacks adequate regional and basin-scale assessment of potential ecological impacts. This lack of strategic planning is particularly problematic given the intimate link between the Andes and Amazonian flood plain, together one of the most species rich zones on Earth. We examined the potential ecological impacts, in terms of river connectivity and forest loss, of the planned proliferation of hydroelectric dams across all Andean tributaries of the Amazon River. Considering data on the full portfolios of existing and planned dams, along with data on roads and transmission line systems, we developed a new conceptual framework to estimate the relative impacts of all planned dams. There are plans for 151 new dams greater than 2 MW over the next 20 years, more than a 300% increase. These dams would include five of the six major Andean tributaries of the Amazon. Our ecological impact analysis classified 47% of the potential new dams as high impact and just 19% as low impact. Sixty percent of the dams would cause the first major break in connectivity between protected Andean headwaters and the lowland Amazon. More than 80% would drive deforestation due to new roads, transmission lines, or inundation. We conclude with a discussion of three major policy implications of these findings. 1) There is a critical need for further strategic regional and basin scale evaluation of dams. 2) There is an urgent need for a strategic plan to maintain Andes-Amazon connectivity. 3) Reconsideration of hydropower as a low-impact energy source in the Neotropics.

Environmental factors restrict the invasion process ofLimnoperna fortunei(Mytilidae) in the Neotropical region: A case study from the Andean tributaries

The golden mussel Limnoperna fortunei was introduced into Argentina in 1991 and has since been spreading through the Plata and Guaíba basins at a rate of 240 km.year−1. To assess their ability to invade the Andean tributaries of the Plata Basin (Pilcomayo, Bermejo and Salado del Norte rivers), their current range was assessed and related to the abiotic parameters of sites where they were present and absent. These data were then compared with their known tolerances to identify possible barriers to invasion. Outputs suggested that three environmental parameters are barriers to invasion: salinity and river flow intermittence in different sectors of the rivers Pilcomayo and Salado del Norte, and concentration of suspended sediments in the Bermejo River and in the upper reaches of the Salado del Norte and Pilcomayo rivers. The importance of these findings is discussed in relation to using environmental data to infer the invasion possibilities and the utility of environmental data to better understand invasion patterns and processes.

Seasonal and provenance controls on Nd–Sr isotopic compositions of Amazon rivers suspended sediments and implications for Nd and Sr fluxes exported to the Atlantic Ocean

This study reports daily water discharge and suspended sediment load concentrations and Sm–Nd and Rb–Sr isotopic systematics and major and trace elements concentrations of twelve monthly sampled suspended load sediments of the Solimões and Madeira rivers, the two major Andean tributaries of the Amazon, during the year 2004. As observed in other long-term monitoring studies of Amazon Rivers, the maximum of suspended sediment load occurs before or during the rising water period (i.e. during the rainy season). In 2004, the Solimões River exported ∼ 289 × 10 6 tonnes of suspended sediments and the Madeira River 294 × 10 6 tonnes which correspond to erosion rates of 129 and 214 T/km 2/yr for the Solimoes and Madeira rivers basins, respectively. Both the Solimoes and Madeira suspended sediments are enriched in LREE over HREE and exhibit similar MREE enrichment; the difference being that the Madeira sediments are more fractionated than the Solimoes ones. When plotted in Al 2O 3–CaO + Na 2O–K 2O diagram, the suspended sediments of the Solimoes and Madeira rivers exhibit two different weathering trends which suggests that these sediments evolved along two different trends starting from felsic rocks with different chemical compositions. The Nd isotopic compositions (εNd) of the Solimoes sediments (− 8.9 to 9.9) are slightly more radiogenic than the corresponding values of the Madeira sediments (− 10.8 to − 12.1). The 87Sr/ 86Sr isotopic compositions of the Madeira sediments (0.728 to 0.740) are significantly more radiogenic than those of the Solimoes (0.713 to 0.717). Together with other major elements and REE evidences, these isotopic compositions suggest that the Solimoes sediments are more influenced by Andean volcanic arc detritus than the Madeira sediments that might be due to input of young basaltic products owing to strong volcanic activity in Ecuador. Mineralogical compositions as well as Nd isotopic compositions do not vary seasonally. Based on our data set and on previous published studies, we have calculated that the Nd suspended sediment flux dominates the Nd total flux (i.e., dissolved + suspended sediment) exported to the Atlantic Ocean by the Amazon River representing ∼ 98% of the Nd total flux and having a global εNd isotopic composition of − 10.3. Contrary to Nd isotopic compositions, Sr isotopic compositions vary seasonally in both rivers. The explanation for this variation remains unclear. We suspect increasing physical weathering during the rainy season to be the main cause of this seasonal control in favouring landslides and river bank erosion that might induce input of more radiogenic sediments not easily mobilized during low water level. We calculated that the Sr isotopic composition of the dissolved load exported by the Amazon River to the Atlantic Ocean is not seasonally dependent and remain fairly constant (0.715–0.716) By contrast, the Sr isotopic composition of the suspended load is strongly affected by the seasonal variation varying from 0.714 in the dry season to 0.730 in the rainy season. Consequently the total Sr isotopic composition (dissolved + suspended sediment) is also seasonally controlled varying from 0.716 to 0.722. We finally suggest that large seasonally controlled Sr isotopic variations of great river is a phenomenon that has been underestimated in previous paleo-climatic and paleo-oceanic studies and should be taken into account in further studies.

Andean Influences on the Biogeochemistry and Ecology of the Amazon River

ABSTRACT Although mountains often constitute only a small fraction of river basin area, they can supply the bulk of transported materials and exert strong regulatory controls on the ecological characteristics of river reaches and floodplains downstream. The Amazon River exemplifies this phenomenon. Its muddy waters and its expansive and highly productive white-water floodplains are largely the products of forces originating in distant Andean mountain ranges. The Amazon's character has been shaped by these influences for more than 10 million years, and its present form and host of diverse organisms are adapted to the annual and interannual cycles of Andean inputs. Although the Andes constitute only 13% of the Amazon River basin, they are the predominant source of sediments and mineral nutrients to the river's main stem, and Andean tributaries form productive corridors extending across the vast Amazonian lowlands. Many of the Amazon's most important fish species rely on the productivity of Andean tributarie...

Species polyphyly and mtDNA introgression among three Serrasalmus sister-species

Understanding the processes that generated pattern of DNA variation in natural populations may be a difficult task. Since migration and gene flow may superimpose to genetic drift and divergence, evolutionary forces responsible of shared polymorphism may be difficult to identify (Pamilo and Nei, 1988; Nielsen and Wakeley, 2001). In this context, the raise of the coalescent theory constituted a significant improvement in the comprehension of the theoretical framework behind gene genealogies (Kingman, 1982; Tajima, 1983) and its application to the analysis of DNA sequences has proven to constitute an informative approach to the problem of shared polymorphism (Chiang, 2000; Takahashi et al., 2001; Machado and Hey, 2002; Rokas et al., 2003; Bowie et al., 2005). The coalescent theory predicts that haplotype sharing will persist at the incipient stage of species divergence between species that founded from the same gene pool (Rosenberg, 2003). This stage of shared polymorphism without gene flow has been previously formalised as the lineage sorting period (Hoelzer et al., 1998). This step is characterised by the occurrence of coalescent events between alleles from isolated groups leading to erratic genealogies (Pamilo and Nei, 1988; Funk and Omland, 2003). However, recently diverging groups may still exchange genes and distinguishing between gene flow and ancestral polymorphism may be a difficult task (e.g. Nielsen and Wakeley, 2001). The piranha belongs to the characidae subfamily of Serrasalminae (Buckup, 1998). Currently including 28 species ranging from 130 to 420 mm standard length, the piranha genera Serrasalmus and Pygocentrus constitute the most speciose group of large carnivorous Characiformes (Jegu, 2003). DNA sequences from mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) recently evidenced that these genera constitute a monophyletic group originating 9 million years ago (Ma) and that Serrasalmus splits into three distinct clades, all distributed throughout the Amazon, Orinoco and Parana watersheds (Hubert et al., 2007). The biogeography of the Amazon freshwater fish fauna has been largely influenced by the Miocene marine incursion that happened at 5 Ma (Hubert and Renno, 2006; Nores, 1999). The analysis of mtDNA sequences within the Piranha evidenced that the colonisation of the Upper Amazon by the genera Serrasalmus and Pygocentrus occurred after the marine retreat, during the last 4 million years, from the Miocene freshwater refuges of the Brazilian and Guyana shields (Hubert and Renno, 2006; Hubert et al., 2007). The Madeira is one of the major Andean tributary of the Amazon and previous phylogeographic studies evidenced that the piranha genera Serrasalmus and Pygocentrus colonised the Andean tributaries of the Amazon during only the last 2 Ma (Hubert et al., 2007). Although the colonisation of the Upper Madeira is recent, molecular phylogenetic results suggested that speciation occurred in Serrasalmus within the Upper Madeira watershed (Hubert et al., 2006). This may be related to the existence of varied water types in the area as a function of the relative

The history of a continent from UPb ages of zircons from Orinoco River sand and SmNd isotopes in Orinoco basin river sediments

We report SHRIMP UPb ages of 49 zircons from a sand sample from the lower Orinoco River, Venezuela, and Nd model ages of the fine sediment load from the main river and tributaries. The UPb ages reflect individual magmatic or metamorphic events, the SmNd model ages reflect average crustal-residence ages of the sediment sources. Together they allow delineation of the crust-formation history of the basement precursors of the sediments. The UPb ages range from 2.83 to 0.15 Ga, and most are concordant or nearly so. Discrete age groupings occur at ∼2.8, ∼2.1, and ∼1.1 Ga. The oldest group contains only three samples but is isolated from its closest neighbors by a ∼600 Ma age gap. Larger age groupings at ∼2.1 and ∼1.1 Ga make up about a third and a quarter of the total number of analyses, respectively. The remaining analyses scatter along concordia, and most are younger than 1.6 Ga. The ∼2.8 and ∼2.1 Ga ages correspond to periods of crust formation of the Imataca and Trans-Amazonian provinces of the Guyana Shield, respectively, and record intervals of short but intensive continental growth. These ages coincide with ∼2.9 and ∼2.1 Ga Nd model ages of sediments from tributaries draining the Archean and Proterozoic provinces of the Guyana Shield, respectively, indicating that the UPb ages record the geological history of the crystalline basement of the Orinoco basin. Zircons with ages corresponding to the major orogenies of the North Atlantic continents (the Superior at ∼2.7 Ga and Hudsonian at 1.7–1.9 Ga) were not found in the Orinoco sample. The age distribution may indicate that South and North America were separated throughout their history. Nd model ages of sediments from the lower Orinoco River and Andean tributaries are ∼1.9 Ga, broadly within the range displayed by major rivers and dusts. This age does not coincide with known thermal events in the region and reflects mixing of sources with different crust-formation ages. The igneous and metamorphic history of these sources, as recorded by the detrital zircons, is that of the Orinoco basin basement. This implies that, despite evidence of fast sedimentary recycling, global similarities in Nd crustal-residence ages, and the probability of cross-continent mixing through continental drift, the sedimentary material carried by individual rivers is mainly derived from the crystalline basement in the basin. The global semblance in Nd isotope ratios in major river sediments and atmospheric dusts results from the averaging effect of large-scale sampling of the continents, which are heterogeneous in age on smaller regional scales. A large portion of the continental crust in the Orinoco basin formed during the Trans-Amazonian orogeny at 2.0–2.1 Ga, and smaller portions formed both earlier, at ∼2.8 Ga, and later, after 1.6 Ga. These observations, which are consistent with the relative sizes of crustal age provinces in the Orinoco basin, indicate that sediments from the lower Orinoco and Andean tributaries contain 25–35% of material added to the crust since Trans-Amazonian times. Nd model ages of these sediments underestimate the average crust-formation age of the basement of the Orinoco basin by only about 10%. If this relationship holds in other river basins, then Nd model ages of major rivers and wind blown particulates indicate that the mean age of the continental crust is ∼1.9–2 Ga.

Upper Pleistocene Amazon deep-sea fan muds reflect intense chemical weathering of their mountainous source lands

Upper Pleistocene muds of the Amazon deep-sea fan contain an abundance of residual weathering products, as indicated by their bulk chemical and mineralogical compositions. The muds are chemically more mature than average shale, average pelagic mud, or the surrounding Demerara Abyssal sediments. They are, however, very similar to the bulk chemical compositions of contemporary suspended sediments of both the Amazon Estuary and those carried by the major Andean tributaries. The modern sediment compositions reflect the rapid weathering now occurring in the Andean source regions of the basin. The major-element geochemical signature of the Upper Pleistocene deep-sea fan sediments suggests that intense chemical weathering in the mountainous source lands has controlled the chemistry of Amazon River suspended sediments since at least the Upper Pleistocene. Minor- and trace-element signatures appear uniform throughout the fan and element concentrations are in general higher than in the intensely weathered Amazon lowland soils but lower than in deep-sea sediments.