Ancient Wood Research Articles

Woody litter protects peat carbon stocks during drought

Northern peatlands store ~30% of the world’s soil carbon. This carbon sequestration is due to slow decomposition, as illustrated by ancient wooden artefacts and ‘bog bodies’ preserved over millennia. Such artefacts suggest that carbon could be captured externally and stored long term in peat. However, whether such carbon would remain stable following lowered water tables is not known. Here, we show that adding woody litter results in preservation of the exogenous carbon, as well as protection of soil carbon within the host ecosystem from severe drought, as a result of leached polyphenolics. These compounds not only inhibit microbial extracellular and intracellular metabolism but also deprive microbial growth of iron and substrates such as carbon and nitrogen. Our results suggest that this technique harnesses natural ecosystem resilience mechanisms and may have implications for new carbon-farming approaches. Northern peatlands are a significant carbon sink but are vulnerable to decomposition during drought and low water tables. Woody litter added to these ecosystems during high water table conditions leaches polyphenolics that protect carbon stores against decomposition, even during subsequent drought.

Variation of larch wood property indexes based on nondestructive testing data

To quickly evaluate the material properties of ancient wooden structure members on site, the larch species of northeastern China was used as the research object, and the nondestructive testing method of the stress wave and the micro-drill resistance meter were used to measure it. The variation laws of the larch wood’s cross and longitudinal property indexes were determined. According to the variation law of material property indexes, the detection divisions under the nondestructive testing technology of stress wave and micro-drill resistance instruments were divided, which provides a basis for improving the accuracy of on-site nondestructive testing. From the comparison of shade and light side data, it was found that there was little difference in material properties indexes. According to the change trend of larch wood with density, the pith, juvenile wood, mature wood, and overmature wood were divided, which provided a reference value for the study of wood growth laws.

Dr Oliver Rackham, the ancient Mugdock Wood and the boundary pollard oak that never was

Dr Oliver Rackham, the ancient Mugdock Wood and the boundary pollard oak that never was

Analysis of the Residual Deformation of Yingxian Wood Pagoda

Cumulative damage and residual deformation of structural components of Yingxian Wood Pagoda over its existence have caused widespread concern. Because Yingxian Wood Pagoda is a very complex ancient wooden structure, previous studies on single‐storey and multistorey ancient structures are not very applicable. In this study, the deformation to the pagoda at the components, storey, and overall structure levels was monitored considering residual deformation, component cracking, and component connection conditions. The effects of different factors were preliminarily identified, including the structural weight, external impacts such as earthquakes and artillery shells, differences in moisture content according to sunlight exposure, and the prevailing wind direction. The study findings are useful in diagnosing the health and causes of deformation of unique buildings such as this in order to develop effective repair and restoration measures.

Coupling model of fuzzy soft set and Bayesian method to forecast internal defects of ancient wooden structures based on nondestructive test

In order to improve the detection precision of internal defect in the ancient wooden structures, defect simulation tests on pine and elm commonly used in ancient buildings were performed by using stress wave detection and drilling resistance detection. Based on detection data, three typical evaluation criteria, which are the information entropy, the correlation coefficient, and residual sum of squares, were selected as a priori information. Combining with the expert’s fuzzy evaluation value, Bayesian formula was used to modify the prior information to determine the weight coefficients of the two detection methods, and a combined prediction model was established. The results show that the combination of subjectivity and objectivity enables the revised weights to more reasonably and accurately reflect the relative importance of each detection method in prediction evaluation, which reduces the forecasting error. Specifically speaking, the mean error of the combined model was reduced by 49.8% and 59.8%, respectively, compared with stress wave detection and drilling resistance detection. Moreover, the five error indicators of this combined forecasting model are the smallest in all methods, indicating the proposed method has a better forecasting effect. It provides an effective application tool for the practice of forecasting the internal defects of wooden components in ancient buildings.

Field test and emergency reinforcement evaluation for an ancient wood pagoda

SummaryAncient wood pagodas, as the excellent representative of ancient China, play an important role in Chinese historical, art, and scientific aspects. Because most pagodas are lacking maintenance for a long time and the long term reinforcement measure has not been determined, it is necessary to carry out an emergency reinforcement method to avoid further damage. This paper presents a design guideline of emergency reinforcement method for ancient wood pagodas. Field tests based on pulsating method were carried out to identify the dynamic characteristics, structural stiffness, and structural damages. The modal frequency, modal shape of different columns and stiffness of each story indicate that the second apparent story is the weak point of the whole structure. To effectively analyze the nonlinear performance of the second apparent story and verify the superiority of the emergency reinforcement method, three elaborated finite element models of the second apparent story in undamaged, and current and reinforced states are established. The buckling analysis shows that the emergency reinforcement method could improve the critical load 89% nearby compared with the current structure. In addition, the seismic analysis proves that the emergency reinforcement method has positive effects on strengthening the weak point to against the earthquakes.

The Wheel and the Cloister in the Rule of Seclusion: Architectural Elements or Elements of a Communication System?

When Walter Benjamin describes Naples, he defines its architecture ’porous like this stone’ assimilating the structural characteristic of the tuff to an architectural model, characterized by voids and openings that create an interpenetration between interior and exterior. These continuous breakthroughs also characterize the life of Neapolitans who are used to living the street as part of social life. Right in the historical centre, where these dynamics are deeply present, there are some cloistered convents that by definition are closed to the city. This paper investigates sacred architecture not as a celebrative space, but as a place of living for religious communities. The focus is on the monasteries: peculiar structures deeply marked in the architecture by the need for confidentiality and therefore to create filters, physical and visual, with the rest of the urban area. The convents of Naples, through the wheels (intended for the passage of offerings) and through the cloisters, establish a relationship with the city that over the centuries has changed with a progressive opening to the inhabitants who are now allowed to get closer to these realities. The research finally deepens the architecture of the convent of Santa Maria in Gerusalemme, commonly known as the monastery of ‘the Thirty-three’, adjacent to the historical hospital of the Incurabili with which it shares its origins since both were founded by the Venerable Maria Lorenza Longo. Despite the closure and the high fence wall, the presence of the monastery is very strong: it is a reference and a listening point, where the ancient wooden wheel still represents a way of communication between the residents of the district and the nuns. In the same way, the cloister and the refectory have transformed their function over the centuries, becoming spaces for public events, while remaining in line with the rules of the Order.The study of the structure and dynamics of communication from/to the convent proposes a reflection on the transformations of religious architecture in the urban context and on the changes in language and meaning of the architectural elements characterizing the monastery.

Landscapes of sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa) in Britain — their ancient origins

ABSTRACTSweet chestnut Castanea sativa has been regarded as a Roman archaeophyte in Britain ever since a debate in the eighteenth century contested whether it was indigenous or introduced. This paper re-examines its status, presenting new evidence within an ‘historical ecology’ analytical framework. Sweet chestnut trees and coppice stools from 237 sites across England and Wales were assessed using genetic, dendrochronological, palaeoenvironmental, archaeological, and historical analyses. Seven types of ‘sweet chestnut landscape’ were identified: ancient inclosures/ groves; ancient coppice woods; historic boundaries; historic gardens; ancient deer parks and historic parklands; historic formal avenues; and more recent high forest and production coppice. Genetic analysis has indicated that the sources of the oldest British sweet chestnut trees and stools lie in parts of France, Spain, Portugal and Italy which were refugia during the Last Glacial Maximum. Tree and stool antiquity are verified for the first time through clonal analysis and dendrochronology. The earliest written record of sweet chestnut growing in Britain found in this study was a.d. 1113, referencing a boundary marker tree for Goldcliff Priory in south-east Wales. Later twelfth-century records evinced localised coppiced woods, nut production and ‘totemic’ plantings of individual trees in noble house and garden settings. By the eighteenth century sweet chestnut was extensively planted in designed parklands and avenues; and in woods, mostly as ‘industrial’ coppice. Present-day ‘landscapes of sweet chestnut’ are endowed with ancient trees, stubs and coppice stools of great significance for cultural and ecological interests.

Probing Chemical Changes in Holocellulose and Lignin of Timbers in Ancient Buildings.

Wooden structures in China’s ancient buildings hold highly historical and cultural values. There is an urgent need to repair and replace the damaged wooden structures after hundreds and thousands of years of exposure to weather. Unfortunately, to date there is still a lack of insightful understanding on how the chemical structure, composition, and micro-morphology evolve over the long-term natural aging before artificial ancient timbers can be developed. This work aims to systematically examine the outer surface, middle layer, and inner surface of the same piece of Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolate) collected from an ancient Chinese building. Based on qualitative and quantitative analysis, both cellulose and hemicellulose in aged woods are found to experience significant degrees of degradation. The crystalline regions of cellulose are also determined to undergo moderate degradation as compared to the control fresh wood. In comparison, the lignin basically remains unchanged and its content in the inner layer slightly increases, as evidenced by more free phenol groups determined. Relative to the outer and inner layer, the middle layer of the ancient wood shows the lowest degree of degradation close to that of the fresh wood. This work offers guidelines for fabricating artificial ancient woods to repair the destroyed ones in China’s ancient architectures.

Nondestructive Testing on Ancient Wooden Components Based on Shapley Value

In this study, we propose nondestructive testing methods and combined forecasting models-based stress wave and impedance measurements to obtain accurate internal defects information for wooden building components. Internal defects data for major wooden components of an ancient building in China and reverse laboratory test data on matching tree species indicated various degrees of damage on the pavilion wood structure surface and internal defects in certain pillars. The stress wave method enabled rapid acquisition of two-dimensional plots of test sections; however, the results revealed that the area of stress wave detection was greater than the actual defect area. Moreover, the impedance meter was able to determine the defect position and type in a single path, and the actual defect area was proportional to the absolute error of the drilling resistance. By distributing the errors from the two nondestructive testing methods on the basis of a Shapley value algorithm, we determined the weights of stress wave and impedance meter data in the forecasting models and established combined forecasting models that showed greater accuracy with a mean relative error of less than 6%. This method can improve the prediction accuracy of internal defects in ancient buildings and provide effective data support for practical engineering repair and reinforcement schemes.

The predictive research of ancient wooden building internal defects compressive bearing capacity based on nondestructive testing methods

131 small specimens and 10 scaled wood column specimen (including 2 complete specimen and 8 with different defect locations and sizes and the type is core cavity) are made with the reference to Building Formulas to research the ancient wooden building internal defects compressive bearing capacity prediction. Some researches on the relationship between the small specimens wave resistance modulus and mechanics, nondestructive testing and internal defects wood column compressive bearing capacity prediction as well as dangerous section judgment and so on. The test result suggests that there is a significant positive correlation between the wave resistance modulus and the compressive strength (r2 = 0.635), which is more accurate than single parameter; internal defect specimens with various locations have an impact on overall compressive bearing capacity and with the defect sectional area expanding, the compressive bearing capacity decreases continuously, the cross-sectional area of the defect is proportional to the attenuation of the relative resistance value; nondestructive method can better predict wood column ultimate compressive bearing capacity and the error is predicted less than 10%. Nondestructive testing method can better determine the most dangerous section of the test piece compared with destruction morphology results. The wooden components quality can be safely evaluated on the premise that the originality of the ancient buildings is preserved and valid data references can also be provided for renovation and reinforcement of ancient buildings wooden components.

Seismic Behaviour of Straight‐Tenon Wood Frames with Column Foot Damage

Timber buildings might incur damages after a long service, because column foot damage affects the structural performance under the continued use. In this paper, six straight‐tenon joint wood frame specimens were prepared with varying degrees of two different damage conditions at a scale of 1 : 3.52. To obtain failure mode and hysteresis performance of the specimens, the low‐cycle reciprocating loading test was conducted. The stiffness degradation curves and equivalent viscous damping curves of the damaged wood frames were also analysed. The mechanical characteristics of the wood frames with column foot damage under the low‐cycle reciprocating load were then simulated using the finite element method, and the results were compared to the test results. It is determined that as the degree of column foot damage increases, the fullness and peak of the hysteresis curves for wood frames, the equivalent viscous damping coefficients, and the overall seismic behaviour of the wood frame all gradually decrease. The skeleton curves obtained by finite element analysis and tests showed good agreement, verifying the influence of column foot damage on the seismic behaviour of ancient wood frame structures.

Diverse Lineages of Candida albicans Live on Old Oaks.

The human pathogen Candida albicans is considered an obligate commensal of animals, yet it is occasionally isolated from trees, shrubs, and grass. We generated genome sequence data for three strains of C. albicans that we isolated from oak trees in an ancient wood pasture, and compared these to the genomes of over 200 clinical strains. C. albicans strains from oak are similar to clinical C. albicans in that they are predominantly diploid and can become homozygous at the mating locus through whole-chromosome loss of heterozygosity. Oak strains differed from clinical strains in showing slightly higher levels of heterozygosity genome-wide. Using phylogenomic analyses and in silico chromosome painting, we show that each oak strain is more closely related to strains from humans and other animals than to strains from other oaks. The high genetic diversity of C. albicans from old oaks shows that they can live in this environment for extended periods of time.

Study on the ancient putty from the site of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 CE) Baochuanchang Shipyard, Nanjing, China

In 2003, the excavation of the ancient site Baochuanchang Shipyard was carried out in Nanjing, China and this shipyard was believed to have been the workshop where the huge vessels of Zheng He's fleet were built and maintained. Several pieces of ancient putty were found here, and a small piece was sampled and analyzed in this paper to study its components and structure. The results of X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed that the putty was mainly composed of calcite (CaCO3), while pyrolysis-gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Py-GC–MS) analysis indicated that tung oil was used in making the putty. In addition, plant fibers inside the putty were identified as jute by the means of polarizing microscope and scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis. These findings confirmed the putty as the so-called chu-nam putty, which was a traditional sealing material used in ancient shipbuilding. Moreover, the surface morphology of the putty was obtained by SEM, and pore size distribution was measured by gas adsorption-desorption analysis. The analytical results suggested that the putty was quite compact, which could perform well in sealing huge wooden ships. This research revealed the shipbuilding skills of the Baochuanchang Shipyard. It may provide reference for studying Zheng He's vessels and make further a contribution to the conservation and restoration of ancient wooden ships of the Ming Dynasty.

Diversity and density patterns of large old trees in China

Large old trees are keystone ecological structures that provide vital ecosystem services to humans. However, there are few large-scale empirical studies on patterns of diversity and density of large old trees in human-dominated landscapes. We present the results of the first nationwide study in China to investigate the patterns of diversity and density of large old trees in human-dominated landscapes. We collated data on 682,730 large trees ≥100 years old from 198 Chinese regions to quantify tree species diversity, tree density and maximum tree age patterns. We modelled the effects of natural environmental variables (e.g. climate and topography) and anthropogenic variables (e.g. human population density and city age) on these measures. We found a low density of large old trees across study regions (0.36 trees/km2), and large variation in species richness among regions (ranging from 1 to 232 species). More than 95% of trees were <500 years old. The best fit models showed that: (1) Species diversity (species richness adjusted by region size) was positively associated with mean annual rainfall and city age; (2) Density of clustered trees, which are mostly remnants of ancient woods, was negatively influenced by human population density and rural population (% of total population). In contrast, the density of scattered trees, which are mostly managed by local people, was positively correlated with mean annual rainfall and human population density. To better protect large old trees in cities and other highly-populated areas, conservation policy should protect ancient wood remnants, mitigate the effects environmental change (e.g. habitat fragmentation), minimize the negative effects of human activities (e.g. logging), and mobilize citizens to participate in conservation activities (e.g. watering trees during droughts).

Species, size, and location of “giant trees” in Tokyo’s urban area and western suburbs

ABSTRACTThe Japanese landscape has been characterised by the occurrence of ancient, massive trees described here as “giant trees”, and many of these have had major historic, cultural, and religious significance. However, modern Japan has experienced significant and rapid urbanisation and in relation to ancient woods and trees, “cultural severance” too. This study identified the species, size, and locations of the giant trees growing in Tokyo’s urban centre and its western suburbs, by conducting field surveys and collecting data from published studies. Classification of sites according to tree girth, with giant trees, revealed six broad locations: (1) forest and agricultural lands of managed secondary and later abandoned woodland with deciduous, broad-leaved trees; (2) public gardens, comprising useful and ornamental plants introduced from southern Japan; (3) parks, including mostly exotic species; (4) shrine sites, including Zelkova serrata, conifers, and evergreen broad-leaved trees; (5) temple sites, including many Torreya nucifera; and (6) Imperial lands, with rare species of trees in low numbers. The highest percentage of giant trees (36%) were found in parks, followed by temple and shrine sites (32%), whereas only 10% were found in other historical places. This study highlights the importance of studying giant tree habitats and history and identifying the relationships between human activities and living trees.

月城垓字 출토 木簡과 日本 古代木簡의 비교

월성 해자 출토 목간을 이해하기 위해 일본 목간을 비교·검토할 필요가 있다고 생각된다. 그래서 본고에서는 월성 해자 목간을 이해하기 위한 방법으로 일본에서 출토된 목간과의 비교·검토해보고자 한다.BR 일본 출토 목간을 보면 다면기재보다는 여러 행에 기재되는 형식이 계승되었다. 이는 율령 문서 행정과 밀접한 관련이 있는 것으로 보이며, 시기는 8세기로 추정된다. 반면 한반도 출토 목간을 보면 다면기재와 여러 행에 기재되는 형식이 병존하고 있는 것을 알 수 있다. 기존에는 백제에서만 여러 행에 기재되는 형식이 보였는데, 이번 월성 해자 출토 목간에서도 신라에서 여러 행으로 기재되는 형식이 사용되었다는 점을 확인할 수 있었다. 또 다면기재 목간의 전파에 대해서도 새로운 검토가 필요할 것이다. 다만 본고는 일본 목간 연구의 입장에서 비교·검토가 진행되어 충분한 해답을 내릴 수 없기 때문에 이 문제는 추후 과제로 남겨놓고자 한다.

일본 출토 고대 목간 : 秋田県 払田柵跡 151차 조사 출토 漆紙文書

일본 출토 고대 목간 : 秋田県 払田柵跡 151차 조사 출토 漆紙文書

Korea’s Record of Ancient Wooden tablets and calligraphy

목간(木簡)은 생활기록과 행정문서들이 대부분이다. 생활기록은 내용이나 기록양식에 있어서 기념기록인 금석문과 달리 매우 다양하다. 다양한 기록문 화는 서체학에 있어서 뿐만 아니라 역사, 국어사, 서지학(문헌학) 등의 종합적인 연구자료를 제공한다. 목간 기록의 분류는 기록방법과 기록내용으로 분류할 수 있다. 기록방법은 표제, 편철, 도각, 낙인, 패찰 등의 기록방법이 있고, 기록내용은 논어, 게송, 기원, 증표, 습자, 재가, 수위, 처방, 인사추천, 서찰, 청원, 부기, 기사, 시가, 구구단, 보고서 등의 내용을 기록한 목간이다. 묵서인 고대목간의 자형은 예서나 팔분에서 해서로 발달하는 과정에 있다. 행정 관료에 의한 행정기록들에는 경생(經生)들에 의한 사경서법(寫經書法) 의 영향도 있고, 독자적인 서법의 경향도 있다. 목간을 통하여 이러한 독특한 서법들을 발견할 수 있다. 목간의 연구가 금석문의 연구와 다른 점이 바로 이런 점에 있다. 한국 고대 해서법은 6세기 생활기록인 행서나 초서를 먼저 선호 하여 사용된 후 해서의 필법이 갖추어졌다. 이 시기가 해서의 기본 필법이 갖추어지는 시기이다.Most of wooden tablets were used for recording everyday life and for administrative purpose. Unlike an epigraph, the records of daily life were various in the contents and the form. A variety of recording culture have been providing the comprehensive research materials in a variety of fields: calligraphy, Korean language history, bibliography and so on. Wooden tablets are classified into a recording method and a content. The recording methods are as in the following classification with : title, filing, carving, branding, labelling and etc. The contents recorded were as in the following : the Analects of Confucius, a praise for Buddha, praying, a certificate, a calligraphy, an approval, a prescription, a letter, an article, a poem, a multiplication table, a report and etc. The shape of character written in the ink in ancient wooden tablets was in the process from ”clerical script” and ”neo-clerical script” to ”regular script”. The administrative documents written by the officers were influenced by the transcription method of Buddhist scriptures(of young students) and a unique calligraphy method. These special calligraphies were found through studying the wooden tablets. It is clear that chronological calligraphy research brightens the prospects to study the calligraphy, finding trace of ink stick in the wooden tablets. That’s why the study of wooden tablets is different from of an epigraph. In ancient Korea, people had preferred and used “semi-cursive script” and “cursive script” in calligraphy, the “regular script” were used after that. In this period, the basic writing method of “regular script” were set.

3D recording of ancient wooden boats for scientific and educational purposes

Digital survey techniques are well established in the cultural and archaeological heritage fields and they have been used by us to document, study and promote knowledge on ancient ships and wooden boats. In this paper, we want to show four case studies with different peculiarity on which digital techniques have been applied: (1) ‘Comacchio sewn boat’, discovered in a land excavation site. (2) ‘Ercolano boat’, restored and exposed in a museum. (3) ‘Trabaccolo Nuovo Trionfo’, historical carriage boat of High-Adriatic sea. (4) Wooden scaled model of ‘brick Cygne’. These represent a peculiar application, complicated by the specific nature of the material of the boats, due to the structural stability and the shape of the wood that could be compromised in an aerobic environment. The archaeologists have the responsibility to employ a fast documentation, but with the correct precision and accuracy for the nominal scale of the survey; the use of digital imaging and survey techniques supports the researchers, such as video and photograph recording, multi-image photogrammetry and laser scanning, and the subsequent elaboration of a virtual 3D model of the real surveyed artefact. This allows scrupulous study of ancient naval construction from both a scientific and disseminative point of view to take place, permitting to increase the knowledge and perception by the general public of this important archaeological and historical heritage.