Ancient Greek Research Articles

Chaos: From celestial mechanics to climate

Abstract Chaos is unpredictable behaviour arising in systems governed by deterministic laws. Since its ‘discovery’ in the 1960s by Edward Lorenz in his studies of meteorological systems, chaos has become an important way of understanding seemingly random behaviour in many other areas. These include the double pendulum, the climate, El Niño and electrical oscillators. Understanding chaos allows the limits of the predictability of a system to be determined. However, despite this recent activity this paper will show that the theory of chaos has a rich history and chaotic behaviour was originally identified in the 1890s by Henri Poincaré in his investigations of the three-body problem in celestial mechanics. But remarkably this paper will also show that chaotic behaviour can be found in such a simple problem as multiplication by 10 and it is closely linked to the question (studied by the ancient Greeks) of whether a number is rational or irrational.

Lavender improves sleep through olfactory perception and GABAergic neurons of the central amygdala

Ethnopharmacological relevanceThe use of lavender as sleep aid or hypnotic agent can be traced back as early as ancient Romans and Greeks. Yet, objective experimental data on whether and how lavender enhances sleep duration or/and sleep quality remain lacking. Aim of the studyWe aimed to characterize the sleep-wake regulating effects of lavender in the mouse and to demonstrate the brain targets and neural circuits involved. Materials and methodsA self-made precise odor delivery system combined with chronic polysomnographic recordings was employed to assess the sleep-wake effects of inhalation with lavender essential oil (LEO, extracted from lavender) and its different constituents during the light and dark phases in free-moving C57BL/6J mice. Neuroviral labeling, in situ hybridization and pharmacogenetics were combined to identify the neural circuits and targets involved. Finally, an insomniac model of DL-4-Chlorophenylalanine (PCPA)-treated mice was established to examine the sleep-inducing potential of LEO. ResultsWe found that inhalation of LEO with a concentration at 25.0% during the light (inactive) phase significantly shortened the latency to non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, increased the total amount of NREM sleep at the expense of wakefulness (W), and enhanced cortical EEG slow wave activities, notably delta power spectra density. We further identified linalool, d-limonene, 1,8-cineole, linalyl acetate and terpinene-4-ol as the major effective sleep-promoting monomer components. Importantly, we found that LEO no longer produced any of the above sleep-promoting effect following either nasal injection of zinc sulfate which interrupts the olfactory pathway, or pharmacogenetics silencing of central amygdala GABAergic neurons. Finally, LEO reestablished NREM sleep with short latency in PCPA-treated insomniac mice, effects comparable with those induced by a potent sedative diazepam. ConclusionsWe have characterized the quantitative and qualitative sleep-promoting effects of LEO and its effective components via the olfactory pathway and central amygdala GABA neuronal targets. The hypnotic property of LEO is reinforced by its ability to restore sleep in insomnia. Our study thus establishes a neurobiological basis for aromatherapy of sleep disorders using lavender.

Physics and medicine from antiquity to the medieval period

Abstract Medical physics is commonly held to have begun at the end of the nineteenth century following discoveries about radiation and radioactivity that were to transform medical diagnosis and the treatment of cancer. A wider perspective dates the origin of the relationship between physics and medicine to the scientific revolution of the sixteenth century when physics began to be applied to understanding the workings of the body and to the development of medical technology. This paper argues that the relationship is in fact much older, dating back several millennia. At the heart of ancient Greek φυσική (natural philosophy) was an attempt to understand the nature and composition of the Universe and a belief which remains valid today that the human body functions on the same principles as the Universe as a whole. This approach led to a corpus of medical teachings rooted in physics as it was then understood that remained dominant in Europe and the Islamic world until the sixteenth century. Furthermore, ancient and medieval sources provide evidence of physical principles being used in medical diagnosis, in treatment and as a means of understanding the functioning of the body in a range of ancient cultures including Greece, Egypt and Persia. This mirrors the different ways in which physics continues to contribute to medical science and clinical practice today. Examples described in this paper include the first technique to map body temperature (arguably also the first medical imaging technique), the use of fire and heat in surgery and other forms of treatment, and medieval attempts to understand vision and the physics of the eye.

Discovering our Sun: From the most important god to a mere dwarf star

Abstract This is a graphic description of the Sun as a source of fascination and awe since the very early civilisations with its importance for life and the horror of seeing it disappearing in the middle of the day and how ancient generations followed its movements throughout the year, building clever monuments to mark its rising and setting position on the horizon. The principles of astrology are dealt with and the amazing intuition of ancient Greek philosophers who suggested that the Sun could be a nearby star is admired. The journey ends by placing the Sun amongst the stars in a wonderful confluence of myth, art and science.

FINGERPRINTS ON FIGURINES FROM THONIS‐HERACLEION

SummaryThis paper studies ancient fingerprints to produce an estimate of the age and sex of the makers of several terracotta figurines found at Thonis‐Heracleion in Egypt, dated to the Late and Ptolemaic periods (seventh–second centuries BC). This is only the second study of its kind to discuss the use of ancient fingerprint impressions from Ancient Egypt and the first to apply this method to Late Period/Ptolemaic material using RTI (reflectance transformation imaging) to obtain measurements. Albeit at a preliminary stage, the findings suggest the involvement of men, women, and children in figurine production, both for locally produced wares and imported Greek figurines, contrary to the image of figurine‐makers presented in ancient Greek literary sources, which portray figurine production as a predominantly male profession. The results also allow insight into questions of training and apprenticeship of ancient figurine production, with various stages of training being represented in the data.

Order and chaos in the ancient Greco-Roman philosophical imagination

Abstract When did chaos come to be opposed to order? This paper considers the earliest references in the Western world to the concepts of “chaos” (Xάος) and “order” (κόσμος), understood as cosmological concepts; these terms are first attested in the epic Theogony of the ancient Greek poet Hesiod and the treatise On Nature of the Pythagorean philosopher Philolaus of Croton. This paper argues by way of a close reading of these texts that originally chaos was instrumental to an orderly Universe and that this idea persisted in the formal development of cosmological texts in the Greek world. The paper concludes by suggesting that the first person in the Western world to make chaos the opposite of order, i.e. absence of order or disorder, was the Roman epic poet Ovid in his celebrated Metamorphoses some seven hundred years after Hesiod first accounted for the role of chaos in instantiating the world order.

Представления о неисчислимых предметах в литературе на древнегреческом языке: от бессмысленного занятия – до знания Аполлона и Бога

One of the prophecies of the seven astragals oracle from the Pisidian city of Termessus included the saying “to count the waves,” indicating the futility of the intended endeavor. The author seeks to ascertain the purposes behind the Greeks’ utilization of imagery pertaining to uncountable objects such as waves, grains of sand, stars, and others. Additionally, the author aims to explore the perceptions surrounding the act of counting these objects within both domestic and cultural-religious contexts. The article shows that this “incalculability” was attracted by the Greeks to express incommensurable and even opposite concepts. First, through expressions like “to count the waves”, the case was characterized as either impossible or meaningless and stupid. Secondly, countless stars or waves were recalled when there was a need to emphasize the incredibly huge number of objects being described. Third, thanks to Apollo’s revelation announced in the response of the Delphic oracle, the knowledge of the number of grains of sand and the size of the sea formed the basis of the formula of divine omniscience: “I know the number of grains of sand and the depths of the sea”. When the books of the Old Testament were translated, the Hebrew tradition began to speak in ancient Greek. In it, the uncountable objects were needed primarily to emphasize God’s promise to Abraham of the multiplicity of the Israelite people, and for comparisons as well as to describe God’s omniscience. The list of uncountable objects itself differed in part from the standards recognized by the ancient Greeks. The ancient Greek and Jewish traditions merged in Byzantine literature into a single stream of the Christian tradition. The lists of uncountable objects of both traditions have been combined and further expanded upon. The Greek tradinion’s designation for an impossible or meaningless endeavor was retained. Passages from the Old Testament with words of God’s promises to Abraham were quoted and retold. Comparison with uncountable objects was actively used. The Apollo’s revelation was recognized as a deception of this demon, torn away from Apollo and eventually given to God.

On the Prototypical Core of Ancient Greek grástis, Latin grāmen and Old English græs

Abstract The present work explores the relevance of prototype semantics in determining genetic relations in Indo-European linguistics. It argues that schematisation as a constitutive process of category formation can be used as a criterion of economy and analytical coherence, when it comes to corroborating assumed phonological correspondences. Thus, it takes the terms grástis, grāmen and græs in Ancient Greek, Latin and Old English, respectively, all roughly meaning “fodder, grass”, and examines the possibility of all three stemming from a common non-propositional prototypical core. The analysis proceeds in the following way: it first tries to reconstruct a schematic prototype for the series of all meanings related genetically to each of the terms, whereas in turn it compares this prototype for each series with that of the rest. It concludes that the image schema of vigorous internal growth is the prototypical core from which all senses emanate in a conceptual network with radial structure.

Les Metamorphoses d’Apulée. 2. Destructuration anarchétypale du roman

Apuleius’ Metamorphoses. 2. Anarchetypal Freedom of the Novel. In this paper I apply a concept I have coined and defined—the anarchetype—to the ancient Greek and Latin novel, more specifically to Apuleius’ Metamorphoses. The text suffers, in my view, from the tension between two contrary formal tendencies, one which is archetypal, another which is anarchetypal. In a paper published in the previous issue of this journal, I have analyzed the first structural constraint, the archetypal one. In the present paper I focus on the anarchetypal tendency of the novel. Apuleius’ assumed intention of writing an entertaining text, in the wake of the “Milesian tales”, offers him the opportunity to treat freely the epic material, with no regards to Aristotle’s principles and to the canon of high literature. The haphazard fragmentation of the linear narrative and the plethora of additional stories give the text the aspect of an anarchetypal rhizome-like domino game. Keywords: Greek and Latin novel, Apuleius, The Metamorphoses, mystery cults, initiation travel, archetype, anarchetype

Античные топонимы Киликийской равнины греко-латинского происхождения

The ancient toponymy of the Cilician Plain (Asia Minor) has a heterogeneous character, a significant part of the geographical names are of substrate origin, which reflects the rich ethnopolitical history of this region. During the Hellenistic era many Greek place names were replaced. The second wave of renaming began after the Roman conquest of Cilicia. Geographical names of ancient Greek and Latin origin were selected and analyzed among the toponyms of the Cilician Plains for morphological structure and lexico-semantic features. Much attention is paid to the problems of etymologization of toponyms, the definition of the basic principles of naming geographical objects and the patterns of renaming. The classification of Cilician toponyms according to chronology is proposed, which identifies the word-formation models of toponyms peculiar to each epoch: appellatives, substantive adjectives, derivatives of personal names, two-part toponyms (compounds and juxtaposed compounds).

The Role of Incubation in Ancient Greek Asklepieions

The sanctuaries of Asklepios served a healing function in the Greek world throughout antiquity. In modern historiography, it is believed that the sick were treated there by incubation, i.e., sleeping in the temple to obtain a divinatory dream. However, the sources are not clear on this matter. In this article, I analyse four sources that, in my opinion, are the most representative of the issue of treatment methods in the Asklepieions. From the classical period, inscriptions describing healings from Epidauros and the comedy "Wealth" by Aristophanes are extremely important, while from Roman times they include "The Sacred Tales" by Aelius Aristides and the Apellas’ inscription from Epidauros. It is significant that none of these sources describes the incubation ritual, and the treatment methods presented in them are rational from the viewpoint of contemporary medicine. Incubation was practiced in the Asklepieions, but its role, in my opinion, was much smaller than commonly believed.

Reconstructing palaeogeography and landscapes around the ancient Greek colony of Abdera (Thrace, NE gr.): an integrated remote sensing approach

ABSTRACT We developed a multi-source, integrated remote sensing approach to characterize the geomorphological features of the alluvial and coastal lowlands around the ancient Abdera (coastal Thrace, Gr.). By combining multi-temporal composites of satellite imagery, DEM-derived products, orthophotography, and different cartographic resources, more than 1000 linear km of ancient landforms have been identified and mapped. When crossed with archaeological and historical data, our results allowed to propose a reconstruction of the palaeogeographic evolution and geomorphological dynamics in the eastern lobe of the Nestos Delta, the Kosynthos plain, Lake Vistonida and the Porto Lagos coast since the Antiquity. Our results suggest that the delta developed mainly between Hellenistic times and the Late Antiquity, when it had reached a shape similar to the current. Most of the large palaeochannels visible in the delta seem to be Nestos’ short-lived avulsions occurring in late Byzantine and Ottoman periods. Eastwards progradation of the Kosynthos plain, especially during Byzantine and Ottoman periods and accelerating in the 20th c. due to river channelization, was the main cause of the silting and a significant size reduction of Lake Vistonida since the Antiquity. Lake Lafra was also partially silted in late Byzantine and Ottoman times, likely due to the sedimentary discharge of the Kosynthos after a change in its course. By contrast, other lagoons and wetlands in the coast of Porto Lagos seem relatively stable in the last millennia with only minor silting and coastline progradation. Further geomorphological and geoarchaeological research in the area will allow to draw more precisely long-term interaction of past societies with environmental dynamics and resulting landscape change.

Natural law and unwritten law in Classical Greek thought

AbstractIt is a common mistake of contemporary natural law scholarship to overestimate the ancient Greeks' contribution to a meaningful theory of natural law and to mistake an appeal to unwritten law with natural law's criteria for normative validity. This paper was designed to elaborate on two interrelated queries. On the one hand, it labours to reconstruct the ancient Greeks' understanding of a hierarchy of law, which is answered in the affirmative. On the other hand, the paper inquires whether there existed any meaningful sense of natural law in the Classical period, to which question the Archytean nexus of law and natural justice is offered as a palpable compromise.

Reconsidering Enslaved People in Ancient Greek Art at the Harvard Art Museums

ABSTRACT In response to the Harvard Art Museums’ ReFrame Initiative and the publication of the “Harvard & the Legacy of Slavery” report, the author reevaluates the display and discussion of images of enslaved people in ancient Greek art in the museum gallery. Ancient Greece relied heavily on the labor and crafts produced by enslaved people, and while enslaved people are common subjects of ancient art, a critical analysis of their representations and interpretations is not standard in art historical or museum discourse. This paper proposes a reading of these images that prioritizes the voice of the enslaved person and proposes strategies to foster dialogue about this topic in the art museum. In particular, the author recommends avoiding euphemisms in nomenclature and in annotated “chat” labels and invites alternative readings of images that take the embodied experiences of enslaved people in the ancient world into consideration.

Мифические детерминанты политического (Политический проект Платона)

The article is devoted to the explication of the mythological determinants of Plato’s political doctrine. The author raises the question about those axiomatic propositions that underlie the political philosophy of the ancient Greek thinker: what is it, the rudiments of mythical consciousness or the rationality of the nascent philosophical logos? The article shows that there are two opposite answers to this question. One is associated with the tradition of conceptualizing myth as fiction and fantasy (Georg Hegel, Auguste Comte, Feokhari Kessidy), the other with the understanding of myth as a special type of rationality underlying a certain ontological reality (Friedrich Schelling, Alexey Losev, Kurt Huebner). The author shows that modern Platonists are increasingly inclined to the second approach and consider myth as an indispensable element of Plato’s philosophy as such. The central element of his system, the doctrine of ideas, is genetically linked to classical mythology. Plato’s ideas are rationalized supernatural entities, divine substances. This understanding finds comprehensive manifestation in Plato’s political project. The peace of a self-identified being is the ideal of a perfect polis. Justice, on the other hand, is conformity to one’s nature i.e., ultimately, conformity to the divine substance expressed in the idea. Thus, the author concludes, justice in Plato’s project is primarily not a social or political

Nonsense Syllables in Byzantine Chant Tradition

This article examines the historical phenomenon of nonsense syllables in the chant of the Byzantine church. This practice of non-lexical singing upon the extended use of vocables, appears already in ancient Greek music and has gone by many terms, including kratēmata or teretismata. Three different hypotheses as to the historical roots and development of this singing practice are predominant, namely those of Gregorios Stathis (1979, 2014), Diane Touliatos (1989), and Gregorios Anastasiou (2005). The foundations, results and consequences of these theories are reassessed in the light of critical examination of the fourteenth century treatise Ἁρμονικά (Harmonika) of Manuel Bryennios (Magdalen College MS Gr 13), the tenth century Book of Ceremonies (in Latin cited as De cerimoniis aulae Byzantinae and in Greek cited as Ἔκθεσις τῆς βασιλείου τάξεως) of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos, and different versions of the liturgy of the so-called “Service of the Furnace” (Athens, National Library, EBE 2047; Athens, National Library, EBE 2406; Iviron Monastery, MS 1120; S-Sinai, Mt. Sinai, MS 1527; and Lavra Monastery, MS 165). The critical examination and synthesis of previous theories of the origin and development of Byzantine nonsense-syllable singing offers a number of conclusions, where I argue for new, qualified hypotheses that may be laid as foundations for further research. It is concluded that the nonsense syllables seem to have served a number of semiotic functions and purposes: as incantations (sometimes with pagan and ritual associations), as mimesis of nature (birds and cicada), for the intonation of texted chant, as well as for singing practice and solmization purposes. It is also argued that the non-semantic vocalization that this singing constitutes, amounts to a type of proto-programmatic music, with layers of mimetic singing and a rare sense of heightened expression in a context which otherwise focuses strongly on a religious text and its context. Finally, the term “mental representations” is proposed for describing the semantic function of nonsense syllables.

Vertical Connectors in Ancient Monuments: Documentation and Experimental Study of the Behaviour of Iron and Titanium Connectors

ABSTRACT Ancient monuments are constructed following the dry construction system. Large dimensional structural members, with perfectly plane interfaces, are placed without mortar. Two types of iron connectors, vertical and horizontal, used to connect individual stone blocks, are activated in case of relative displacements, e.g. earthquakes. The paper focuses on, iron or titanium, vertical connectors, crossing the interfaces between successive stone courses, and investigates their seismic behaviour. In situ and bibliographical documentation of vertical connections in ancient Greek monuments, including their topology, dimensions, and typical pathology attributed to them, served as a basis for the design of an experimental program. First, specimens simulating the original connections are tested under monotonic and cyclic actions. The behaviour of those connections, effectuated using iron vertical connectors, having confirmed the pathology observed in situ, i.e. fracture of the substrate, an alternative connection was tested aiming at avoiding or significantly delaying the failure of the substrate (marble). An unbonded length was provided to the connector, close to the interface, to postpone the contact between the connector and the marble. The test results confirmed the anticipated change of behaviour, associated though with smaller shear resistance and larger displacements at its attainment than for the original connections.

Эргонимический миф Гермеса: к исследованиям религиозной жизни юридических лиц

The article is devoted to the latest forms of manifestation of religiosity in the city space. The study focuses on studying the micro-levels of religious life in urban ergonymy. By examining store signs, navigation maps, and goods on the shelves of chain stores using the names of the gods of Ancient Greece, the article sets the task of reconstructing a non-verbalized mythological narrative composed by ergonyms and product names. The religious life of urban space is understood as the practices of piety characteristic of ancient Greek religiosity: invocation and dedication. The specific mechanisms of cultural reproduction in Ancient Greece and Europe of the 21st century are reconstructed. Based on the distinction made, the myth-socializing function of modern education in the process of broadcasting the mythological narrative and reinterpreting the Olympic myth is described. The article refers to data on the religious life of legal entities. Based on an analysis of the frequency of mentioning the names of the Olympic gods in the unified register of legal entities, and a comparison of the names of the gods with the declared forms of economic activity, the Olympic myth of the 21st century — the “Ergonymic Myth of Hermes” — is reconstructed. The article assumes scaling up the research to the study of “chorographies” — materially embodied spaces of the sacred on the streets of modern cities. The study of chorographies is proposed as a new methodology for studying culture and human coexistence.

Term ‘zlorastvoreniye’ in liturgical texts: loan translation and re-interpretation

The article analyzes the use of an unclear term “zlorastvoreniye” (traced from the ancient Greek compound word δυσκρασία or its Latin analogue intemperies “bad mixing; immoderation”) and its derivatives in Church Slavonic texts. The paper gives examples of these classical language lexemes and explains how these terms reflect ideas dating back to antiquity about the correct, favorable combination of tangible qualities of the weather. Apart from a single example (the expression “zlorastvoreniye vetrov”), translated into Slavonic from Greek, the article provides examples with phraseological units “zlorastvoreniye vozdukhov / zlorastvorennii vozdusi” from the original texts, whose authors most likely copied Latin phraseology. The work explains the meaning of the petitions from the blessing of the bell worship (which has a Rome Catholic origin, although is not a direct translation) — bell ringing was believed to have a beneficial effect on the phenomena occurring in the air. Moreover, we present examples of how, in connection with the wide spread of the miasmatic theory of diseases in Russia, the studied expressions were reinterpreted by authors who were not experienced in the classical languages as bad smell and contagiousness of the air.

Design and evaluation of Enthralled: A higher education conversation game based on Euripides’ Bacchae

This article presents the design, goals, and evaluation of Enthralled following the 2022 playtesting in three undergraduate Liberal Arts core courses. Enthralled draws on ancient Greek myths and the classical tragedy Bacchae by Euripides. As an immersive pedagogical intervention, Enthralled promotes group collaboration and rewards consideration of diverse viewpoints and cultural values. Participants vote on the motivations of dramatic characters, which allows for a deeper understanding of their preconceptions and implicit biases and offers the opportunity for self-reflection and dialogue. The game toolkit includes an original deck of cards, a role-playing script, a character sheet, ballots, a hints-and-clues deck, instructions for players and moderators, and scoring materials. The third version of Enthralled exceeded our entertainment efficacy, playability, and usability goals and contributed positively to the learning outcomes of the courses. Minor game improvements and a course-tailored implementation toolkit are the next steps for scaling this project.