Ancient Greek Physicians Research Articles

Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 a.d.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery

Byzantine surgery flourished from the early stages of the Byzantine empire (324-1453 A.D.). The first great Byzantine physicians, among the most eminent being Oribasius from Pergamun (fourth century), not only compiled anthologies of the works of ancient Greek, Alexandrian, and Roman physicians but added their own personal practical experience and observations. The circumstances surrounding, and the treatment of, the fatal abdominal wounding of one of the most renowned emperors of Byzantium, Julian the Apostate (361-363 A.D.), is examined based on historical accounts unknown in the broader medical bibliography, namely, the histories and chronicles of Byzantine writers. From this analysis it can be concluded that the emperor's physician, Oribasius, in all probability, applied knowledge of ancient Greek and Roman surgery to save his famous patient. The techniques of "gastrorrhaphy" and pharmaceutical confrontation of the wound in that era, adopted later by the surgeons of the Medieval West, seem to constitute noteworthy roots of modern surgery.

Surgery on the larynx and pharynx in Byzantium (AD 324-1453): early scientific descriptions of these operations.

We present the techniques of various operations on the larynx and pharynx (incision of abscesses of the tonsils, tonsillectomy, tracheotomy, uvulectomy, and removal of foreign bodies) found in the Greek texts of Byzantine physicians. The techniques of these operations were the first to be so meticulously described and were compiled from the texts, now lost, of the ancient Greek physicians. These medical texts, which followed and enriched the Hippocratic, Hellenistic, Roman, and Galenic medical traditions, later influenced medieval European surgery, either directly through Latin translations or indirectly through works of Arab physicians.

Surgery on the larynx and pharynx in Byzantium (AD 324-1453): Early scientific descriptions of these operations

We present the techniques of various operations on the larynx and pharynx (incision of abscesses of the tonsils, tonsillectomy, tracheotomy, uvulectomy, and removal of foreign bodies) found in the Greek texts of Byzantine physicians. The techniques of these operations were the first to be so meticulously described and were compiled from the texts, now lost, of the ancient Greek physicians. These medical texts, which followed and enriched the Hippocratic, Hellenistic, Roman, and Galenic medical traditions, later influenced medieval European surgery, either directly through Latin translations or indirectly through works of Arab physicians. (Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2000;122:579-83.)

Abandonment of terminally ill patients in the Byzantine era. An ancient tradition?

Our research on the texts of the Byzantine historians and chroniclers revealed an apparently curious phenomenon, namely, the abandonment of terminally ill emperors by their physicians when the latter realised...

Evolution in the Conceptualization of Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease: Greco-Roman Period to the 1960s

Most histories of senile dementia commence with Alois Alzheimer’s description in 1906 of the first case of Alzheimer’s disease, yet the history of senile dementia before 1906 is quite rich, dating back to the ancient Greek and Roman philosophers and physicians. Over the 2500 years since ancient times, the concept of senile dementia has evolved from a rather vague notion that mental decline occurred inevitably in old age, to become defined today by a distinct set of clinical and pathological features with the potential for treatment and prevention within grasp. Throughout history, many elderly individuals with unpredictable behavior were sequestered in institutions, and the line between mental disorders and senile dementia was hazy at best. The identification of Alzheimer’s disease at the onset of the 20th century was a turning point for the understanding of senile dementia, and the concepts and histological findings presented by the early researchers of Alzheimer’s disease remain relevant still today. Indeed, these early findings are proving to be a continuing source of insight, as many of the issues debated at the turn of the century remain unresolved still today. This paper thus traces the history of the evolution of our current conceptualization of Alzheimer’s disease from the amorphous Greco-Roman concept of age-associated dementia.

Induction of cytokine synthesis and fever suppresses REM sleep and improves mood in patients with major depression

Beneficial effects of inflammatory events on certain psychiatric disorders, including depression, were reported sporadically by ancient Greek physicians, but have been described also in our times by a few psychiatrists during the past decades. During febrile inflammatory events, mediators of the immune system such as interleukin-1 can be detected in the brain and may act on their respective receptors which have also been demonstrated in the brain. Since cytokines such as interleukin-1 have been shown in animal studies to exert sedative behavioral effects, to be somnogenic, and to induce slow-wave sleep (SWS), we performed a pilot study to evaluate scientifically the anecdotically reported beneficial effects of inflammatory states on depressive disorders. Mood and sleep parameters were monitored in seven drug-free, severely depressed patients before, during, and after the administration of a single dose of endotoxin. All patients responded with a short pulse of increased synthesis of the cytokines tumor necrosis factor, interleukin-1, and interleukin-6 and elevated body temperature for several hours. During the night following endotoxin administration, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep was significantly suppressed, while changes in slow wave sleep were not significant. During the next day, all patients were in a significantly improved mood; however a rebound of REM sleep was observed in the second night after endotoxin administration and mood worsened again during the next days, indicating an only transient beneficial effect of the treatment.

Uses of springwater

The many uses of springwater around the world span history. Springwater has been used for basic survival, medicinal purposes, and for man's entertainment, pleasure, and dalliance. Hippocrates and ancient Greek physicians were versed in the health benefits of mineral water therapy. In early recorded history, the Egyptians, Arabians, and Mohammedans discussed the use of mineral waters for healing the ill. Mythology and legend date the thermal springs of Bath, England, to 800 BC. Hannibal refreshed himself with bubbling springwater at Vergeze on his way to attack Rome in 218 BC. Therapeutic application of mineral waters was very popular in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Significant expenditures were made throughout Europe and the United States to develop lavish resorts and vacation spots at the famous mineral springs. The Romans may have initiated the uses of mineral waters, but the French are traditionally the modern developers and promoters of bottled waters. Evian was exported to the United States as early as 1905. Mountain Valley, of Hot Springs, Arkansas, has been bottled since 1871. Poland Spring water of Maine has been distributed since the mid-1800s. Springwater has become the health drink of today. Uses of springwater through time, famous springs and famous consumers of springwater, and the therapeutic attributes of springwater are summarized in the following paper. Research included technical, nontechnical, and trade information. The paper provides a retrospective of historical aspects of the development of springwaters, a concise summary of medicinal characteristics of springwater, and insight to commercial enterprise of bottled water.

Monastic incorporation of classical botanic medicines into the Renaissance pharmacopeia.

Ancient Greek physicians believed that health resulted from a balance of natural forces. Many, including Dioscorides, made compilations of plants and medicines derived from them, giving prominence to diuretics, cathartics and emetics. During the Roman Empire, although Greek physicians were highly valued, the Roman matron performed many medical functions and magic and astrology were increasingly used. In Judaic and later Christian societies disease was equated with divine disfavor. After the fall of Rome, the classical Greek medical texts were mainly preserved in Latin translation by the Benedictine monasteries, which were based around a patient infirmary, a herb garden and a library. Local plants were often substituted for the classical ones, however, and the compilations became confused and inaccurate. Greek medicine survived better in the remains of the Eastern Roman Empire, and benefitted from the influence of Arab medicine. Intellectual revival, when it came to Europe, did so on the fringes of the Moslem world, and Montpellier and Salerno were among the first of the new medical centers. Rather than relying on ancient experts, the new experimental method reported the tested effects of substances from identified plants. This advance was fostered by the foundation of universities and greatly aided by the later invention of the printing press, which also allowed wider dissemination of the classical texts.

Neuropsychiatry

The relative emphasis on “biological” or “psychological” formulations in our understanding of “mental” disorders has varied at different periods in history. The early traditions of Western medicine, as represented by ancient Greek and Roman physicians, recognised that mental disturbance could be produced by physical disorders. The famous 17th century neurologist Thomas Willis, who coined the term “neurology”, believed in a neurological basis of psychiatric disorder. This opinion was explicitly stated in the mid-19th century text on mental disorders by Griesinger [1]. In fact, in die latter half of the 19th century, neuropsychiatry was synonymous with general psychiatry. A number of developments led to this situation. The study of aphasia had resulted in a burgeoning interest in brain structure-function relationships. The recognition of general paresis as an acquired disease with an identifiable aetiology had resulted in therapeutic optimism. Further, neurologists of this period were interested in retaining the territory of mental disorder as a source of patients.

Aristotle's cardiocentric model of animal locomotion.

The anatomical and physiological explanation of animal locomotion was much discussed among the ancient Greek physicians and natural philosophers. The earliest investigations of the preSocratic philosophers, the Hippocratic authors, and Plato (429347 B.C.) are comparatively speculative, superficial, or unsystematic, however, reflecting the absence of a full-blown, deliberate program of research into the anatomical minutiae of animal movement up to that time.' It is only with Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) that we find both a comprehensive and detailed anatomical program intent on unveiling the precise corporeal machinery involved. His investigations set new standards for the explanation of locomotion, which included a fine-grained empirical account of the structural components and temporal sequence of bodily events that bring about the movement of an animal from pace to place (he kata topon kinesis).

Neural tube defects.

Neural tube defects refer to any defect in the morphogenesis of the neural tube, the most common types being spina bifida and anencephaly. Spina bifida has been recognised in skeletons found in north-eastern Morocco and estimated to have an age of almost 12 000 years. It was also known to the ancient Greek and Arabian physicians who thought that the bony defect was due to the tumour. The term spina bifida was first used by Professor Nicolai Tulp of Amsterdam in 1652. Many other terms have been used to describe this defect, but spina bifida remains the most useful general term, as it describes the separation of the vertebral elements in the midline.

Medical Views of Depression in the Elderly: Historical Notes

Ancient Greek and Roman physicians recognized the high prevalence of depressive illness in old age and began to differentiate the major mental syndromes of the elderly. Greek humoral theory connected black bile, melancholia and old age, and this formulation dominated medical thinking until the seventeenth century. Beginning with the Enlightenment and continuing throughout most of the nineteenth century, physicians spurned the idea that old age and depression were linked, or tended to view depression as evidence of brain decay. Although twentieth century studies have confirmed that depression in the elderly is a common illness, usually self-limiting and rarely coexisting with dementia, these views have been incompletely incorporated into modern medical practice.

LUDWIG'S ANGINA

The clinical condition to be considered here was frequently cited briefly in descriptions of cases by ancient Greek physicians. Hippocrates, the great master physician of the fourth century B. C., made many references to this condition. Aretaeus, a distinguished contemporary of Galen, living in the second and third centuries A. D., Galen, Paulus of Aegina, Wells (1809) and Gregory (1822) also have referred to this condition. However, in 1836 and 1837 many articles began to appear in medical literature the subject of which was a brawny infection of the cellular tissues of the neck. Various names were given to the disease, such as cynanche cellularis maligna and morbus strangulatorius. The leader of the group of physicians reporting on this and the author of the first article was Wilhelm Friedrich Von Ludwig, of Stuttgart, personal physician to the King of Wurttemberg. His description of the disease in 1836 as a gangrenous

WET PACKS AND PROLONGED BATHS

The value of the wet pack and the prolonged bath in the treatment of psychotic patients has long been recognized but thus far no precise indications for the employment of these forms of therapy have been determined. It is well known that the effects of the wet pack or the prolonged bath are not always beneficial. In addition to darifying these problems it is desirable to ascertain if possible the relative effectiveness of packs and baths. On this account an analysis has been made of the physical and psychological reactions of more than 6o psychotic patients to these therapeutic procedures. The reactions have been correlated with the type of personality, the form and stage of the psychosis and the general setting in which treatment was given. In order to gain perspective and possibly some suggestions from the experiences of the past the historical aspects of these forms of therapy were investigated. It was found that although hydrotherapy was used extensively by the ancient Greek physicians the present popularity of packs and baths is due in part to an attempt to avoid mechanical restraint. In general their virtues have been presented to each succeeding generation of physicians in a traditional manner.

MINERAL SPRINGS OF CALIFORNIA.

From the earliest dawn of history, mineral waters have been highly extolled for their medicinal properties. The ancient Egyptians and Arabians used mineral waters in the treatment of many diseases. The hot sulphurous springs of Tiberias (now called Tabareah) have been in extensive use for the past 3,000 years, as they are at the present day, by patients from all parts of Syria. The thermal baths of Calirrhoe near the Dead Sea, made famous by Herod are still in use. The ancient Greek and Roman physicians prescribed mineral waters extensively, as may be seen from the writings of Hippocrates, Aristotle and Herodotus. Homer speaks of using mineral waters for bathing, for the preparation of sacrifice, for the reception of oracles and for holy marriages. Josephus and Pliny refer to the marvelous curative powers of mineral waters. The thermal springs of Thermopylæ, immortalized by the heroic Spartans, have been in use