Ancient Chorasmia Research Articles

Alexander the Great and Chorasmia

The article discusses E.V. Rtveladze’ idea about two kingdoms in the ancient Chorasmia in the time of Alexander the Great. E.V. Rtveladze after analyzing the reports of Arrian and Curtius Rufus about the Chorasmian embassy to Alexander, came to the conclusion that the sources dealt with two different embassies: the first was headed by Pharasmanes, the king of the western (left bank) Chorasmia, and arrived in Bactria in winter or early spring of 328 BC; and the second was sent by Phrataphernes, the king of the eastern (right bank) Chorasmia, and visited Alexander in Marakanda in summer of the same year. The authors suggest this conclusion was wrong and different royal names can be best explained by the assumption that by the time the embassy was sent, the ruler of the unified Chorasmia was Phrataphernes, who died while his son (and possibly co-ruler) Pharasmanes was in Marakanda, and after that Alexander recognized the right of Pharasmanes to the title of king. The long-term existence of Chorasmia – it became independent to the end of the 5th century BC – played the main role in Alexander’s decision. Besides, material culture of Chorasmia does not give any reasons to suppose the existence of two different states there. In our opinion, these facts indicate the formation of a single centralized economic system throughout Chorasmia.

The Return to Ancient Chorasmia: Explorations of the Joint Karakalpak-Russian Complex Archaeological Expedition on the Ustyurt Plateau and at Bol’shoy K’irk-K’iz

The article covers the main findings of the first season of the South Aral Joint Karakalpak-Russian Complex Archaeological Expedition, created according to the agreement of the Institute of Oriental Studies (Russian Academy of Sciences), the State Museum of Oriental Art; Karakalpak Research Institute of Humanities, Karakalpak Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan, and Nukus State Pedagogical Institute named after Azhiniyaz. At the first stage (April 15–30), during the work at Gunzheli Burial Ground 1 (Ustyurt plateau, Karakalpakstan Shumanai region), there were excavated 23 burial mounds of the early nomadic era, as well as Caravanserai (Gunzheli 2). Studies of the Greater Gungeli mound (Gunzheli 3) allowed to make conclusions about two stages of its functioning: The first, judging by the findings of the Chorasmian wheel-turned pottery of the 4th–1st centuries BC, dates accordingly; during the second stage (3rd–4th centuries AD), ten ossuaries with bones, buried according to the Zoroastrian rite, were let into the stone structure-crepe located at the base of the mound.For the second stage (May 2–17), the expedition moved to the Illikalli region of Karakalpakstan, where the citadel of the Bol’shoy K’irk-K’iz and the Western suburban complex were explored. During excavations on the crest of the fortress wall we completely uncovered a section of the rifle gallery at the level, as can be assumed today, of the lower floor. In addition, a significant section of the citadel adjacent to the defensive wall of the fortress was excavated. During the excavation of the Western suburban complex, dating from the size of bricks and ceramics findings 4th–2nd centuries BC, there were revealed traces of polychrome painting and monumental unbaked clay sculpture.

The Oxus Route toward the South

Abstract In this contribution, in view of the striking evidence from the site of Akchakhan-kala which is casting a completely new light on the archaeology of the Chorasmian polity and the Central Asian region, I explore relations between Ancient Chorasmia and its neighbouring regions to the south, in particular Bactriana. I will try to argue that the oft-referred to favoured political relations of Chorasmia with the Arsacid empire, considering all the evidence now at our disposal, have been misjudged. The material culture of Ancient Chorasmia, throughout the history of the region, clearly shows the existence of a privileged, albeit not exclusive, exchange route toward the region to its south. Chorasmia has always been, since its birth in the 6th century BC, a bridge from the sedentary world toward the steppes and a polity with a distinctive culture that the scarcity of written sources has often deprived of historical individuality and speciously relegated to the periphery of modern western historiography, in the shadow of the better-known superregional powers that established control over Asia and Iran.

“Long Walls” in Ancient Chorasmia and Central Asia

Abstract The Ancient Chorasmian “long wall” of Dévkesken, part of a larger complex situated on a projection of the semi-arid Ustyurt Plateau in today’s Karakalpakstan, is discussed in this paper in light of similar defensive barriers erected in pre-Islamic Central Asia.

Was Zoroastrian Art Invented in Chorasmia?

Abstract Before the recent discoveries of the Karakalpak-Australian Expedition to Ancient Chorasmia (KAE) evidence for Zoroastrianism in Chorasmia was scant, coming only from the official use of the Zoroastrian calendar, the onomastics, and the archaeologically documented funerary practices of the region, while the interpretation of remains of temples or fire chapels is subject to discussion. During the last seasons of work on the material of the KAE excavations at Akchakhan-kala, the royal seat of Chorasmia in the 2nd century BC – 2nd century AD, substantial fragments of wall paintings from the rear wall of the main columned hall of the “Ceremonial Complex” were cleaned and reassembled. It appeared at once that they belong to oversized standing figures, most probably deities. The best preserved image has been identified as Srōsh, god of prayer and protector of the soul after death. The second figure is probably to be identified as a personification of the group of the Fravashis, pre-created souls of the ancestors and protectors of “Aryan people” in battles, also worshipped as deities. A third figure, very partly preserved, perhaps represents Zam-Spandarmad, goddess of the Earth. If these identifications are valid, these deities appear to have been chosen because of their association with the turn of the year. This would be consistent with the possibility that the already known “portrait gallery” of Akchakhan-kala was related to the commemoration of royal and clanic ancestors at the end of the year. Notwithstanding much still needs to be elucidated, it appears already certain that these paintings, dating about the beginning of the 1st century AD, are the earliest documented attempt to create a Zoroastrian art directly inspired by the Avesta. The identification of some figures in the Toprak-kala “High Palace” (2nd-3rd centuries AD) can perhaps be reconsidered in the light of this new evidence.

Fire Features at Akchakhan-kala and Tash-k’irman-tepe

Abstract Fire is an intrinsic aspect of Zoroastrian ritual and religious traditions. Akchakhan-kala can be conclusively linked with pre-Sasanian Zoroastrian practice through evidence from the recent discovery of murals depicting Avestan deities. Close similarities in apparently ritual features suggest that Tash-k’irman-tepe can also be linked to such traditions. Both sites also have a rich array of fire features which can be linked to respect for, and veneration of, fire in a variety of forms. This paper discusses these features, how they might fit into the wider picture of pre-Sasanian Zoroastrian development, and their significance for a deeper understanding of the history of Ancient Chorasmia.

Michele Minardi, Ancient Chorasmia. A Polity between the Semi-nomadic and Sedentary Cultural Areas of Central Asia: Cultural Interactions and Local Developments from the Sixth Century BC to the first century AD (Acta Iranica 56), Louvain: “Peeters”, 2015—199 pp.

Michele Minardi, Ancient Chorasmia. A Polity between the Semi-nomadic and Sedentary Cultural Areas of Central Asia: Cultural Interactions and Local Developments from the Sixth Century BC to the first century AD (Acta Iranica 56), Louvain: “Peeters”, 2015—199 pp.

Michele Minardi. « Elite, Wine Consumption and Status Symbols in Ancient Chorasmia »

L’auteur presente deux objets exceptionnels mis au jour lors des fouilles de la mission karakalpak-australienne a Akchakhan-kala (occupe entre le IIe s. av. et le IIe s. de n.e.), un fragment de rhyton en ivoire et un moule en terre cuite en forme de tete de satyre destine a decorer de la vaisselle en ceramique. Il passe en revue les possibles analogies stylistiques et propose d’y voir une influence de la culture hellenistique d’Asie centrale en Chorasmie, ou l’on cultivait la vigne et consom...

Columned Halls in Ancient Chorasmia

ABSTRACTAncient Chorasmia in the period from around the sixth century BC to the second century AD was rich with large fortified sites, many containing monumental architecture. Some of these buildings were large halls, others smaller columned chambers. With particular reference to the site of Akchakhan-kala, this paper discusses the form, development and origins of Chorasmian columned halls.

Elite, Wine Consumption and Status Symbols in Ancient Chorasmia

This paper analyses two objects of Hellenistic taste related to wine consumption unearthed during the archaeological excavations of Akchakhan-kala in Ancient Chorasmia: a fragmentary ivory rhyton and a terracotta mould in the shape of a satyr’s head used to decorate ceramics. These items are only the latest evidence regarding wine consumption and selective reception of Hellenistic culture in 1st century bc-2nd century ad Ancient Chorasmia. Although these two finds show a remarkable Hellenistic influence, it is assured that in Chorasmia wine consumption and vine cultivation were already widespread in the 5th century bc when the local elite used precious vessels of Achaemenid style for their tables and when the lesser strata of the population imitated these toreutics specimens and related practices. Once again the “isolated” Chorasmia shows its remarkable tendency to select foreign artistic/artisanal elements for its crafts and to adopt/import alien status symbols for concepts shared by the elites of the Hellenised east.

The Akchakhan-kala Wall Paintings: New Perspectives on Kingship and Religion in Ancient Chorasmia

The Akchakhan-kala Wall Paintings: New Perspectives on Kingship and Religion in Ancient Chorasmia

A Four-Armed Goddess from Ancient Chorasmia: History, Iconography and Style of an Ancient Chorasmian Icon

This article examines a miniature silver vessel characterised by two elements: a depiction of a four-armed female deity embossed in its emblema, and a Chorasmian inscription externally incised around its rim, with a date relative to a specific “Chorasmian Era”. The representation of the goddess is analysed iconographically and stylistically and considered in the light of the available archaeological data. It is argued that besides her iconography, which shows an array of stratified Central Asian and Indian elements, the stylistic traits of the four-armed goddess clearly indicate cultural exchanges between Ancient Chorasmia and the Eastern Roman Empire during the sixth century AD, at the end of which the specimen can be dated.

Karakalpak-Australian Excavations in Ancient Chorasmia. An Interim Report on the Kazakly-yatkan Wall Paintings: the "Portrait" Gallery

Karakalpak-Australian Excavations in Ancient Chorasmia. An Interim Report on the Kazakly-yatkan Wall Paintings: the "Portrait" Gallery

Karakalpak-Australian Excavations in Ancient Chorasmia, 2001–2005: Interim Report on the Fortifications of Kazakl'i-Yatkan and Regional Survey

This article presents the interim results of the Karakalpak-Australian excavations for the years 2001–2005 at the site of Kazakl'i-yatkan in north-western Uzbekistan. Data is presented on the construction and absolute chronology of the fortifications and an architectural survey of contemporary standing monuments in the region. Kazakl'i- yatkan was a major site in the delta of the Amu-dar'ya and was possibly at one time a regional capital. A series of C14 dates has shown that the site was established around the late third century BC and abandoned probably at some time in the second century AD. The regularity of the fortifications suggests a planned layout, but their efficacy was seriously hampered by inefficient design. The site suffered a major siege in the first century BC, but subsequently recovered and the fortifications were repaired. The identity of the attackers is as yet undetermined.

The Krakalpak-Australian Excavations in Ancient Chorasmia: the Northern Frontier of the 'Civilised' Ancient World

From about the 7 t h /6 t h centuries BC ancient Chorasmia was located south of the Aral Sea, in the delta of the Classical Oxus River (mod. Amu-dar'ya). To the north lay the Inner Asian steppe (now Kazakhstan), to the west the cliffs of the inhospitable Ustiurt Plateau (further west, the Caspian Sea), to the east the delta of the Classical Jaxartes (mod. S'ir-dar'ya), and to the south two deserts, the Kara-kum and Kz'il-kum which separated Chorasmia from Margiana and Sogdiana. Its geographical isolation form the civilsed ancient Indo-Iranian world resulted in virtually independent cultural development for much of its early history and, later on, after the devastation caused by the Mongols and particularly Timur, remarkable preservation of pre-Islamic monuments the like of which cannot be found anywhere else in Central Asia. Long before archaeological explorations began, Chorasmia was known from Persian and Greek texts as a province (satrapy) of the Achaemenid Persian empire; it also stands as the possible area of the Aryan Expanse of the Avesta, as the best land created by Ahura Mazda and therefore of signal importance regarding the early stages of the Zoroastrian faith. By the time of Alexander the Great Chorasmia was independent and had a king. This is the last textual mention of Chorasmia until the early medieval period, although it may have had relations with the Kushan empire at least from the 2 n d century AD onward. Exploration began in the I930s under the leadership of S. P. Tolstov who founded the Chorasmian Archaeological Expedition whose work continued up to the collapse of the Soviet Union in I991. Since I995 the University of Sydney Central Asian Programme (USCAP) and the Karakalpak Branch of the Uzbek Academy of Sciences have conducted excavations in eastern Chorasmia, at two key sites: Kazakl'i-yatkan (Akcha-khani-kalesi), a heavily fortified site (Rus. gorodishche) which may have been one of the sacral centres of ancient Chorasmia; and at Tash-kirman-tepe, one of the earliest, undisputed (Zoroastrian) fire temples yet discovered. Both sites may date back to the early 4 t h century BC and some standing remains may be even more ancient. Both sites were abandoned during the Kushan period after about the 2 n d century AD.

Five Seasons of Excavations in the Tash-k'irman Oasis of Ancient Chorasmia, 1996-2000. An Interim Report

Five Seasons of Excavations in the Tash-k'irman Oasis of Ancient Chorasmia, 1996-2000. An Interim Report

Five Seasons of Excavations in the Tash-K'irman Oasis of Ancient Chorasmia, 1996–2000. An Interim Report

Five Seasons of Excavations in the Tash-K'irman Oasis of Ancient Chorasmia, 1996–2000. An Interim Report

Zoroastrian traces along the upper Amu Darya (Oxus)

The aim of this study is to show how Zoroastrian elements have survived into the 19th and 20th centuries around the higher reaches of the Amu Darya (ancient Oxus), a river now forming the boundary between Afghanistan and the U.S.S.R, whose basin is mostly inhabited by East Iranian Tajiks and related Pamiri groups – that is, approximately Bactria of old. Although Islam reached Balkh as early as the 7th century, such Zoroastrian survivals should not perhaps be too surprising, since Bactria was one of the ancient homelands of Zoroastrianism, and was among those regions which laid legendary claim to Zoroaster's own ministry. Unfortunately although the history of Zoroastrianism in Western Iran during Achaemenid, Parthian and Sasanian times is fairly well known, its fortunes in the earlier East Iranian centres like Bactria are much less clear. A few literary sources like Strabo can be supplemented by gradually emerging archaeological evidence. Nevertheless Zoroastrian remains in Bactria are meagre when compared with Buddhist ones from there, or with Zoroastrian cultic materials found further afield in Central Asia/East Iran, i.e. from ancient Sogdia, Chorasmia and Margiana.