Ancient Bronze Research Articles

The Drunken Satyr from the Villa dei Papiri at Herculaneum

Prior to the international loan exhibition Buried by Vesuvius: Treasures from the Villa dei Papiri at the Getty Villa in Los Angeles (26 June – 28 October 2019), the Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli (MANN) generously lent the ancient bronze statue of a Drunken Satyr for study, analysis, and conservation. Discovered in pieces in tunnels excavated through what has come to be recognized in the outer peristyle garden of the Villa dei Papiri at Herculaneum on July 10, 1754 and restored in 1759 at the Royal Foundry at Portici, the Drunken Satyr was praised as one of the most beautiful bronze statues to survive from antiquity. This paper provides an overview of its history and presents the results of recent study, analysis, and treatment that shed greater light on the techniques of the statue’s ancient manufacture and its alteration and state of preservation at the time of recovery. It also addresses the nature and extent of the post-antique restorations that can be identified and their ramifications on the statue’s appearance. These collective findings allow for a more comprehensive understanding of the Drunken Satyr.

New research on the Cleveland Apollo

This paper presents new technical details on the original manufacture and modern reconstruction of the Cleveland Apollo, a nearly life-size ancient bronze sculpture of the youthful god acquired by the Cleveland Museum of Art in 2004. Although previous studies had shown the sculpture to be an indirect lost-wax casting, few joins had been discussed in detail. Recent, more comprehensive radiographs, combined with extensive external and internal visual analysis, now permit a more thorough explanation of the assembly, from work on wax models through casting (in at least six sections), patching, and finishing, as well as post-manufacture damage. Together with radiography, analysis of numerous and varied modern restoration materials provides a fuller picture of the way the object was more recently re-assembled. A new digital 3D model of the sculpture, now available, will be essential for future study, interpretation, and display.

Investigations on ancient bronze drums from Majiang, Guangxi, P. R. China

Six different types of Majiang bronze drums from Hechi City, Guangxi, China were collected from the Guangxi Museum to characterize the original scheme of polychromy and materials used for the drums. The composition of all the samples were determined by using scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. All the bronze drums contain mainly Cu, Sn, Pb, and As. Qualitative analysis of the structure by X-ray powder diffraction indicates that each of the six bronze drums contains four or five phases, namely (Cu, As), Pb, Cu3Sn, and Cu10Sn3 or Cu, Pb, As0.2Cu1.8, Cu3Sn, and Cu10Sn3. The Rietveld structural refinement is performed first time for the quantitative analysis of ancient bronze drums and inorganic cultural relics. This paper reports the result.

Analysis on the Ancient Bronze Cooking Outils Excavated from Historic Site of Anti-Mongolian Struggle in Hangpaduri, Jeju

The microstructure of ancient bronze cooking outil excavated in historic site of anti-Mongolian struggle in Hangpaduri was analyzed to confirm various manufacturing techniques. Bronze spoon and bronze ladles were made by alloying only copper and tin, and the alloy ratio included approximately 22% tin in the copper composition of the forged high tin bronze. The manufacturing process of forged high tin bronze technology, which commonly involves high-temperature forging and final finishing with quenching, was performed. In addition, the sulfide elongated in the longitudinal direction shows that the copper material supplied to the metal may be copper ore containing sulfur such as chalcopyrite and chalcocite. The three bronzewares were made using a binary alloy of copper-tin and a ternary alloy of copper-tin-lead, respectively. Manufacturing techniques using a binary alloy of copper-tin are divided into a forged high tin bronze technique using a hammering and quenching process and a manufacturing technique system of quenching after casting into a shape. Bronze bowl made using a ternary alloy of copper-tin-lead contain 11 wt% tin and 9 wt% lead in the main metal of copper. The lead contained in large quantities is formed in an uneven size within the microstructure, and shows the characteristic of sulfide being distributed around the lead. In addition, there are no traces of additional processing or heat treatment such as quenching. Therefore, it can be seen that the work process was completed by casting the shape. The results of the microstructure analysis show various manufacturing technology systems applied to the bronze cooking outils from historic site of anti-Mongolian struggle in Hangpaduri, Jeju. In particular, through comparison with bronze artifacts utensils excavated from other regions of the Sambyeolcho’s historic site, the possibility of bronze being introduced due to the migration of the Sambyeolcho was confirmed.

Reflecting the language of ancient civilizations: A diachronic transition of “爵” and contrastive analysis of Sino-Korean Chinese characters

This study focuses on the historical and cultural significance of the Chinese character “爵” (jue), reflecting the culture of the ancient Bronze Age, and examines its semantic evolution and characteristics from a cognitive linguistic perspective. In addition, it compares and contrasts this with its use in Korean hanja (Chinese characters used in the Korean language). The research highlights that in ancient China, “爵” was initially used to denote a ceremonial wine vessel, symbolizing authority and social status, and was closely associated with rites and nobility. Over time, the meanings of “爵” expanded to include titles of nobility and official positions. Furthermore, the study explores the impact of Chinese culture and language on Korea, showing how “爵” and its related concepts were adopted and adapted within the Korean language and culture, maintaining some of its original meanings while also developing unique interpretations. It suggests that many Korean hanja words share identical meanings with their Chinese counterparts, but some have evolved distinctively, especially in the realm of religion, highlighting the interplay and diversity of cultural and linguistic influences between China and Korea.

Multifunctional organic-inorganic hybrid coating for enhanced bronze corrosion protection

Bronze relics with vital historical, artistic, and scientific value, are one of the significant symbolizations of human civilization. However, due to the long burial time and the change in storage conditions, an inevitable and thorny problem arises in preventing the ancient bronze relics from corrosion. Coatings have great potential for metal corrosion protection at present. This study prepared a multifunctional coating consisting of zinc oxide (ZnO), titanium dioxide (TiO2), and fluoroethylene vinyl ether (FEVE) polymer by an organic-inorganic hybrid, which was applied onto the surface of corroded bronze using a self-assembly method and spraying. The rough structure of composite coating resembling that of the mastoid structure found on lotus leaf, effectively prolongs the transmission path of corrosive ions while preventing bronze contact with the corrosive media. Additionally, this study mainly investigated the bronze anti-corrosion mechanism through an electrochemical analysis perspective. Electrochemical tests revealed the lower corrosion current density, and the positive corrosion potential of multifunctional FEVE@ZnO/TiO2 coating immersion in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution. The experimental results demonstrate that the synergistic effect of organic-inorganic significantly enhances corrosion resistance by retarding the corrosion process and providing active protection against corrosion. The multifunctional coating also exhibits exceptional self-cleaning properties and weatherability when without changing the bronze color and appearance. Consequently, this preparation strategy and research approach for constructing a multifunction coating has a great application prospect in the conservation of bronze relics and metal anti-corrosion.

A “set” of ancient bronze bells excavated in Changsha, Hunan Province, China

This article explores the criteria used to ascertain whether or not, and how, ancient Chinese bronze bells might form sets of musical instruments, thus clarifying their original intended use by ancient musicians. The focus is on ten bells unearthed from Changsha city in Hunan province in China, which date to the twelfth century BCE. A range of diverse relationships between these bells provide valuable insights that can be explored. Debate is ongoing among music historians regarding the nature of the bells. Some argue that the ten bells do not constitute a set of musical instruments because their designs and acoustic properties lack sufficient similarity and correlation. Conversely, another group of historians suggests that nine of the ten bells could indeed be seen as a set, but with the tenth bell being an outlier due to its distinct design. The third group of historians contends that the ten bells should be considered a musical set because of their organized sequence of consecutive semi-tones, while the design differences of the bells are less significant and can be overlooked if we focus on their musical functions. In this study, we scrutinize the assumptions made by these music historians, including their definitions of design similarity and the sequence of progressive pitches. Further previously overlooked criteria, such as the geographical proximity of these ten bells and others found in neighboring areas, and the incremental changes in the bell sizes, are also considered. Through the use of these criteria we aim to explore a wide range of relationships between ancient Chinese bells and to reassess what other new evidence the bells may offer to the study of ancient Chinese musical concepts. The concept of the chromatic scale discovered by ancient Chinese musicians was embodied on the casting of bronze bells.

Этноархеологическое изучение памятников эпохи бронзы Центрального Предкавказья (на примере Камлюкского кургана)

The article discusses the problems of ethnogenetic interpretation of archaeological cultures and the chronological determination of burial complexes using the example of the Kamlyuk mound. The source used is materials stored in the scientific archive of the Institute for Humanitarian Re-search of the Kabardino-Balkarian Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences. A short historiographical review of the history of the study and discovery of archaeological monuments on the territory of Kabardino-Balkaria is presented. The study applies methods of ethnographic and archaeological study, and uses the concept of “ethnoarchaeology”. Typological features of burials are highlighted, similar and distinctive features are compared and analyzed, and an ethnographic description of the funeral rite is given. The question of the relationship between the concepts of “archaeological culture” and “ethnicity” is considered. The ethnicity of burial complex builders is discussed in relation to ancient Bronze Age archaeological cultures (Maikop and North Caucasus) and the ethnic communities that have lived in this territory since antiquity. Attention is focused on the need for additional research, considering an interdisciplinary approach.

Research on Multi-Scale Fusion Method for Ancient Bronze Ware X-ray Images in NSST Domain

X-ray imaging is a valuable non-destructive tool for examining bronze wares, but the complexity of the coverings of bronze wares and the limitations of single-energy imaging techniques often obscure critical details, such as lesions and ornamentation. Therefore, multiple imaging is required to fully present the key information of bronze artifacts, which affects the complete presentation of information and increases the difficulty of analysis and interpretation. Using high-performance image fusion technology to fuse X-ray images of different energies into one image can effectively solve this problem. However, there is currently no specialized method for the fusion of images of bronze artifacts. Considering the special requirements for the restoration of bronze artifacts and the existing fusion framework, this paper proposes a new method. It is a novel multi-scale morphological gradient and local topology-coupled neural P systems approach within the Non-Subsampled Shearlet Transform domain. It addresses the absence of a specialized method for image fusion of bronze artifacts. The method proposed in this paper is compared with eight high-performance fusion methods and validated using a total of six evaluation metrics. The results demonstrate the significant theoretical and practical potential of this method for advancing the analysis and preservation of cultural heritage artifacts.

New insights on the analysis of the causes of glossy lustre on the surface of ancient Chinese bronze mirrors

Ancient Chinese bronzes, particularly bronze mirrors, often develop a fatty, oily, or greasy film on their surface, known as patina. This film can appear silvery, green, or black. Bronze mirror samples from the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476/403 BCE) to the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 CE) were analyzed using a systematic approach that included super depth of field three-dimensional microscopy, scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDS), Raman spectroscopy, and THM-Py-GC/MS. The analysis indicates the presence of advanced organic acid lead in the matrix of ancient bronze mirrors. The ancient existence of the lost wax method combined with the mould method of bronze casting technology is verified through simulation experiments and ancient literature. Ancient bronze mirrors may have utilized this technique, with advanced organic acid lead remaining in the mirror mould that entered the bronze mirror matrix during pouring. The Lead organic acids in bronze mirrors readily precipitate on the surface and cover the mirror. The change in the greasy sheen on the surface of the bronze mirror may be related to the degree of corrosion. If the mirror's corrosion level is low, the organic acid lead film remains transparent. If the level of corrosion is significant, the organic acid lead film may darken in color due to oxidation, aging, hydrolysis, or microbial activity.

Research on the Characteristics of Figure Round Pattern in Qing Dynasty

Round pattern, also known as round nest pattern. It is one of the most common patterns in ancient China, that is, symmetrical radial or rotating round decorative patterns around. Such patterns are often found on ancient bronze ware, ceramics, weaving and embroidery products, and modern silk fabrics. Round pattern is an important part of the study of Chinese costume patterns, which contains the cultural concepts that Chinese people yearning for perfection, auspiciousness, reunion, harmony and beauty. Cloud bat pattern, rich and noble peony pattern, colorful cloud pattern, sitting dragon pattern, phoenix pattern, butterfly pattern, and so on, the subject matter is numerous. Central symmetry type, Tai Chi type corresponding type, rotary radiation type, asymmetric flower type, and so on, the style is rich. Among them, the Qing Dynasty appeared a round pattern with character stories and relatively free composition. The pattern of the character round has unique characteristics of the Times. On the basis of the aesthetic feeling of the round flower form, it integrates the plot of the characters, reflecting the characteristics of the social customs and aesthetic taste at that time, and establishes a bridge for the traditional pattern and custom illustration.

Cauldron, Copper, Cash: Medieval Bronze in Motion and Flux

Medieval Chinese thinkers conceptualized ancient bronzes in anthropocentric terms—as mute, inert objects that required the engagement of a perspicacious human subject for their value to become apparent. They also regarded bronzes as animate things that had the capacity to act independently of direct human manipulation, and they situated bronzes within frameworks of material vitalism that parallel many aspects of the “new materialism” associated with contemporary theorists like Karen Barad and Jane Bennett. This article interprets both of these understandings as containment strategies designed to rein in and constrain bronze's ever-present capacity for liquefaction. As with other metals, bronze was forever oscillating between solidity, in the form of discrete, functional objects, and liquidity, as a mutable substance of tremendous potency. Both states spawned different metaphors. Tracing this tension between solidity and liquidity, from the casting of the Nine Cauldrons and the origin myths of Chinese civilization through the medieval challenge of adapting a metallist currency regime to an expanding economy, this article explores how the cultural logics and natural tendencies of bronze were intertwined.

UiO-66 Particles Decorated with Ag/Au Nanoparticles as SERS Sensors for Detecting Harmful Patina in Trace Analysis of Ancient Bronze Art

UiO-66 Particles Decorated with Ag/Au Nanoparticles as SERS Sensors for Detecting Harmful Patina in Trace Analysis of Ancient Bronze Art

Combined Scanned Macro X-Ray Fluorescence and Reflectance Spectroscopy Mapping on Corroded Ancient Bronzes

Bronze is an alloy composed primarily of copper and tin and since its discovery is widespread in the whole world. This alloy can thus be found in many archaeological sites and its study can give information about the technology of production, the trading routes, or the warfare within a region. However, bronze artefacts can undergo severe alteration processes, and the formation of corrosion layers of different copper minerals can prevent the readability of the artefact or even destroy it, as in the case of the ‘bronze disease’. Their preservation is crucial for maintaining a connection to our cultural heritage. In this paper, we present the study of some corroded bronze artefacts found in different burying conditions. They have been analysed through a scanner system that combines two non-invasive techniques, macro XRF (MA-XRF) and visible, near infrared, short wave infrared (VIS-NIR-SWIR) reflectance, to unravel information about the metal and the patina composition, thickness, and distribution. As the corrosion of bronze depends on the burying conditions and the alloy composition, these data are of the utmost importance to understanding the alteration processes occurring in the archaeological site and to ensure the artefacts’ optimal preservation.

Extreme Sn isotope fractionation in highly evolved granites

Stable Sn isotopes have been widely used to trace the planetary differentiation processes, the provenance and trade paths of ancient bronze artifacts, the mineralization history of tin ore deposits, and the terrestrial magmatic processes. However, systematic Sn isotope studies of felsic igneous rocks especially the Sn mineralization-related highly evolved granites are still lacking. In this study, we present the first high-precision Sn isotope data of two Sn-rich highly evolved S-type granites (Laochang and Kafang) from the world-class Gejiu Sn ore district. These granite samples show remarkably variable δ122/118Sn values (relative to the Sn standard solution NIST 3161a) ranging from 0.11 ± 0.02‰ to 0.93 ± 0.02‰ (2σ), which is the largest variation range reported in granites so far. The absence of correlations between Sn isotopes and LOI (loss-on-ignition) and εNd(t) values, along with the low magmatic oxygen fugacity (△FMQ < 0) for these granites, rule out hydrothermal alteration, wall-rock assimilation, source composition heterogeneity, and anatexis processes as causes of the Sn isotope fractionation. The Laochang granites show negative correlations between δ122/118Sn values and magmatic differentiation indicators (e.g., CaO, Fe2O3, Ti, Eu/Eu*, F/Cl), suggesting fractional crystallization increased the δ122/118Sn isotopes in the residual melts. The fractional crystallized minerals are mainly composed of biotite, plagioclase, and minor ilmenite. Compared with the Laochang granites, the Kafang granites show higher SiO2 contents, F/Cl ratios, and δ122/118Sn values, suggesting the magma at this stage was fluid-saturated and fluid exsolution coupled with fractional crystallization would further enrich the heavy Sn isotopes in the residual melts. We further quantified the contributions of crystal fractionation and fluid exsolution on Sn isotopic variability using a Rayleigh fractionation model. The modeling indicates that △122/118Sncrystal-melt = −0.6 to −0.5‰ and △122/118Snfluid-melt = −1.9 to −0.7‰ with an initial H2O content of 2 wt.% can explain the observed δ122/118Sn values of Gejiu granites. This study implies that both crystal fractionation and fluid exsolution processes cause increase of Sn isotopic values in the highly evolved granites and Sn isotopes are useful for tracing the evolution of highly differentiated igneous rocks.

Corrosion of ancient Chinese bronze fragments from different periods and protective effect of menthol coating

Chinese ancient bronze fragments from three periods of history were investigated in terms of the characteristics of substrate and patina. The non-destructive protective effect of menthol coating was verified. Patinas on the fragments of the Spring and Autumn period, Warring State period, and Han Dynasty all contain the major components CuCl2·3Cu(OH)2 and Cu2(OH)2CO3. The residual components, some oxides and chlorides of Pb and Sn, show no evident distribution trend in the patinas except PbCl2 is segregated beneath the patina of the Han dynasty fragment. Menthol coating shows a consistently protective ability for these patinated fragments. However, its sublimation is strongly affected by ambient temperature and relative humidity (RH). Menthol coating with an initial thickness of ∼500 µm could effectively protect the fragments for 328 h under 23 ℃ with 54% RH while for only 42 and 2 h respectively under 25 ℃with 100% RH and 35 ℃ with 100% RH.

Research on the Inscriptions on Ancient Bronze Objects and Related Issues under the Visual Threshold of Calligraphy National Exhibition

In recent years, the selected rate continues to rise in the calligraphy works taking as the model of inscriptions on ancient bronze objects in national calligraphy exhibitions, which reflects the current situation of taking as seal characters’ models in the calligraphy circle and the aesthetic orientation of calligraphers. Based on the analysis of the relevant data of seal characters in the calligraphy national Exhibition, this paper reveals the status and development trend of works taking as the model of inscriptions, and further discusses the gains, losses and prospects of calligraphy creation taking as the model of inscriptions in the national exhibition.

A study on ancient casting method via microstructures of impurities and copper found in bronze excavated from the Unified Silla Period (7th to 10th centuries)

At the Hwangnyongsa temple site, which was founded in 633, at Dongdaebong Mountain in Korea, a large number of gilt-bronze artefacts have been excavated. Optical microscopy, X-ray fluorescence, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, focused ion beam and transmission electron microscopy were used to identify the structure of specimen and impurities. This article investigated the impurities and copper grains in bronze Buddha robes from the Hwangnyongsa temple site to determine the ancient bronze craft technology in the Unified Silla period (seventh–tenth). The XRF results of the specimens indicated that they were made using an alloy of copper and tin, and gold plating was only added on the front side. The microstructure of the specimen was confirmed to be a recrystallized equiaxed hexagonal structure with twins and impurities. The EDS results of the impurities indicated the molar ratio of Cu:S was 2:1, and the electron diffraction pattern substantiated this result by indicating Cu2S (JCPDF 33-0490). The surface of the specimen consisted of a highlead layer and copper grains. It was hypothesized that the copper grains were formed by the reaction of Pb with the matte (Cu2S) during casting. Lead with black gas would aid in the production of high-quality bronze. The copper grains used were found in Silla, as they have been detected in Koryo bronze artefacts. Hence, it is plausible that the ancient artisans knew that lead provided good bronze quality during the casting process.

The Corrosion Properties of Bronze Alloys in NaCl Solutions.

Chloride ions play an important role in the corrosion of bronze through their active reactivity to copper alloys. The corrosion behavior of bronze alloys in NaCl solution was investigated by using X-ray diffraction (XRD), a scanning electron microscope (SEM), and electrochemical tests, with a special emphasis on the corrosion resistance of the α and δ phases in Cu-20 wt%Sn bronze alloys. The experimental results show that the corrosion current density of Cu-20 wt%Sn bronze alloys increases from 1.1 × 10-7 A/cm2 to 2.7 × 10-6 A/cm2 with the increase in the chloride ion concentration from 10-3 mol/L to 1 mol/L. After a soaking duration of 30 days, the matrix corrosion depth reaches 50 μm. The α phase of the alloys is easily corroded in NaCl solution, while the δ phase with high Sn content has strong corrosion resistance. This study provides relevant data for the analysis and protection of ancient bronze alloys.

Quantitative characterization of archaeological bronzes based on thermal and compositional analysis

AbstractPulsed thermography has been applied to the quantitative characterization of the insertions of two ancient bronzes, the Boxer at Rest and the Hellenistic Prince. The analysis of the thermographic signal time dependence performed by a specifically developed model enabled the evaluation of the insertions’ thickness and of elements which could provide indications about the procedure followed for their insertion. This could be achieved by exploiting a semi‐empirical relation establishing the thermal diffusivity dependence on the total effective weighted concentration of Sn and Pb atoms obtained from the analysis of the values determined on samples containing different concentrations of Sn and Pb.