Anatomical Architecture Research Articles

Anatomical Architecture of the Brachial Plexus in the Common Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) with Special Reference to the Derivation and Course of its Unique Branches

The anatomy of the brachial plexus in the common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), which has not been previously reported, was first examined bilaterally in a newborn hippopotamus. Our observations clarified the following: (1) the brachial plexus comprises the fifth cervical (C5) to first thoracic (T1) nerves. These formed two trunks, C5-C6 and C7-T1; in addition, the axillary artery passed in between C6 and C7, (2) unique branches to the brachialis muscle and those of the lateral cutaneous antebrachii nerves ramified from the median nerve, (3) nerve fibre analysis revealed that these unique nerve branches from the median nerve were closely related and structurally similar to the musculocutaneous (MC) nerve; however, they had changed course from the MC to the median nerve, and (4) this unique branching pattern is likely to be a common morphological feature of the brachial plexus in amphibians, reptiles and certain mammals.

CHOROID IS THINNER IN INFERIOR REGION OF OPTIC DISKS OF NORMAL EYES

To determine the thickness of the choroid across the posterior pole of normal eyes. Twenty-eight clinic-based normal eyes (54.1 ± 20.0 years, -3.6 ± 4.1 diopter) were studied. The macula and retina around the optic disk were scanned with a spectral-domain optical coherence tomographic instrument. The retinal mapping program with the enhanced depth imaging technique was used, and the borders of the choroid were drawn manually in each optical coherence tomographic image. A choroidal thickness map was constructed by the built-in program, and the choroidal thickness in the different sectors of the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study grid was measured and compared. The choroid inferior to the optic disk was significantly thinner than that in the other sectors of the outer ring of the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study grid (superior, 196 ± 62 μm; inferior, 146 ± 47 μm; nasal, 183 ± 80 μm; and temporal, 193 ± 64 μm, P < 0.001). The mean choroidal thickness at the nasal sector of the macular region was significantly thinner than other regions of the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study grid (superior, 268 ± 74 μm; inferior, 245 ± 73 μm; nasal, 190 ± 68 μm; temporal, 268 ± 63 μm; and central, 258 ± 88 μm; P < 0.05). Choroidal thickness maps showed that the thinner choroidal area spreads around the optic disk and the inferior part of the posterior pole. The thinner choroid inferior to the optic disk may be a natural anatomical architecture of normal eyes, and this area may be more susceptible to hypoxia or to elevated intraocular pressures.

Measurements of brain microstructure and connectivity with diffusion MRI

By probing direction-dependent diffusivity of water molecules, diffusion MRI has shown its capability to reflect the microstructural tissue status and to estimate the neural orientation and pathways in the living brain. This approach has supplied novel insights into in-vivo human brain connections. By detecting the connection patterns, anatomical architecture and structural integrity between cortical regions or subcortical nuclei in the living human brain can be easily identified. It thus opens a new window on brain connectivity studies and disease processes. During the past years, there is a growing interest in exploring the connectivity patterns of the human brain. Specifically, the utilities of noninvasive neuroimaging data and graph theoretical analysis have provided important insights into the anatomical connections and topological pattern of human brain structural networks in vivo. Here, we review the progress of this important technique and the recent methodological and application studies utilizing graph theoretical approaches on brain structural networks with structural MRI and diffusion MRI.

Unusual Complications of Percutaneous Epicardial Access and Epicardial Mapping and Ablation of Cardiac Arrhythmias

Percutaneous epicardial access and mapping/ablation of cardiac arrhythmias are being increasingly performed. Although complications such as pericardial effusion are relatively common, other unusual complications may occur due to the complex anatomic architecture of the heart and surrounding tissues. In this report, we report a series of rare and unusual complications related to percutaneous epicardial procedures. Between 2006 and 2011, 334 patients underwent attempts at percutaneous, subxiphoid access for epicardial mapping/ablation at 5 experienced centers. Seven selected complications are highlighted in this case series. Patient 1 had a 1-cm right ventricular pseudoaneurysm after several unsuccessful attempts at epicardial access. This was successfully managed conservatively. Patient 2 had intra-abdominal bleeding related to puncture of the left lobe of the liver during access that required surgical repair. Patient 3 had a subcapsular hepatic hematoma that was probably related to percutaneous access and was successfully managed conservatively. Patient 4 had severe pericardial bleeding followed by ventricular fibrillation, immediately after obtaining percutaneous epicardial access. A lacerated middle cardiac vein was repaired surgically. However, the patient ultimately died of complications. Patient 5 had a history of cardiothoracic surgery and developed a right ventricle-abdominal fistula after multiple attempts at percutaneous access. This was surgically repaired without major sequelae. Patient 6 had cardiac tamponade caused by a lacerated coronary sinus branch during epicardial catheter ablation and required surgical repair. Patient 7 had severe left coronary vasospasm and ventricular fibrillation during catheter manipulation in the pericardium. This complication was successfully managed with intracoronary nitrates. Though generally safe, percutaneous epicardial access and mapping/ablation can result in uncommon complications. Awareness of these rare complications may facilitate early detection and successful management.

Ingredients for a brain

In thinking about components of the brain that are important for mental function, there are several obvious things to consider. The brain’s wiring diagram, embodied by the structural connectivity, is one feature. Graph theory metrics applied to anatomical networks have shown patterns that are consistent with a small-world network with dense local connections and sparser distal connections (Bullmore and Sporns, 2009). This imparts an advantage in information processing capacity compared to wiring diagrams that are either random or more regular (e.g. lattice). Studies of the brain’s wiring diagram also suggest the presence of regions that act as hubs, connecting local territories of specialized processing (Hagmann et al ., 2008; Honey and Sporns, 2008). On top of the anatomical architecture, to capture function one would need to consider which nodes are active at a particular time and how the sequence of activations proceeds for a given operation (McIntosh, 2004). Associated with activation is co-activation (or functional connectivity), wherein anatomical connectivity enables activity changes in one node to affect, and be affected by, others (McIntosh and Korostil, 2008). Another feature that seems less obvious in this consideration is the ‘noise’ that exists in these networks (Faisal et al ., 2008). At one level, noise reflects the imprecision of cellular operations within an ensemble of neurons (e.g. ion channel opening and closing, membrane fluctuations). At a second level, involving connections between ensembles, variations in transmission timing affect synchrony between ensembles. Understanding the interplay of these features of noise with anatomical and functional connectivity may help to explain how the brain works. The importance of noise, or more generally spontaneous activity, in the brain was discussed as far back as the 1940s (Pinneo, 1966). While some researchers felt that spontaneous activity was an obstacle to be overcome for brain function (e.g. Triesman, …

Plasticity of Cortical Maps

Sensory and motor representations embedded in topographic cortical maps are use-dependent, dynamically maintained, and self-organizing functional mosaics that constitute idiosyncratic entities involved in perceptual and motor learning abilities. Studies of cortical map plasticity have substantiated the view that local reorganization of sensory and motor areas has great significance in recovery of function following brain damage or spinal cord injury. In addition, the transfer of function to distributed cortical areas and subcortical structures represents an adaptive strategy for functional compensation. There is a growing consensus that subject-environment interactions, by continuously refining the canvas of synaptic connectivity and reshaping the anatomical and functional architecture of neural circuits, promote adaptive behavior throughout life. Taking advantage of use-dependent neural plasticity, early initiated rehabilitative procedures improve the potential for recovery.

Automatic segmentation of tissue sections using the multielement information provided by LA-ICP-MS imaging and k-means cluster analysis

Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) is an established and powerful tool to analyse the distribution of elements in tissue sections. Among other applications, the technique is expected to play a central role in the understanding of normal and pathological element distributions in brain tissue. In order to interpret the distribution of elements such as the bio-metals Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn and proceed to an element-based comparison between groups of samples, it is necessary to anatomically parcel the tissue section into regions-of-interest and to average element signals across these regions. This categorization, also termed segmentation, can be done manually, but the support of automated procedures is highly desirable, especially in order to (1) identify groups of pixels with similar elemental fingerprint, termed clusters, and to determine which degree of discrimination is reasonable; (2) segment anatomical structures known to exhibit substructure but without clearly defined borders, such as the healthy cortex, zones of tumours or ischemic lesions, in an observer-independent way; and (3) to investigate correlation between the distribution of elements in tissue and phenomena which incorporate contributions from several elements in a convoluted way, such as the origin of contrast in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) experiments. The multi-parametric information provided by LA-ICP-MS lends itself naturally to multivariate analysis. This study provides a new way to synthesise the information distributed over many element images by demonstrating the possibility to segment tissue sections into biologically meaningful substructures. This data-driven, observer-independent categorization was based on k-means clustering. The optimal number of clusters was determined based on the silhouette method. Segmentation of healthy tissue resulted in a set of substructures in perfect congruence to the anatomical architecture. Segmentation of ischemic lesions identified a number of regions with different fingerprints of C, P, Fe, Cu and Zn deposits. Clustering provides a promising way of combining the information present in several element images and reveals structure which is not entirely present in any isolated image. As a useful by-product of this study we have found a promising method for investigating the optimal line length within the process of image reconstruction from the continuous stream of raw data points. Images were characterized by their tensor of inertia, in image- as well as in Fourier dual-space ( k-space) and changes in the ratio of the intrinsic moments of inertia or the orientation of the principal axes were found to closely describe the optimum orientation. The first results look very encouraging, but the method must be extensively tested before it can be used as an automatic procedure. In conclusion, cluster analysis of mass spectrometric imaging data allows one to define the fingerprint element distribution of different anatomically or functionally distinct regions and opens a new way for the study of correlation between the element distribution and related phenomena.

Visual perception and memory systems: from cortex to medial temporal lobe.

Visual perception and memory are the most important components of vision processing in the brain. It was thought that the perceptual aspect of a visual stimulus occurs in visual cortical areas and that this serves as the substrate for the formation of visual memory in a distinct part of the brain called the medial temporal lobe. However, current evidence indicates that there is no functional separation of areas. Entire visual cortical pathways and connecting medial temporal lobe are important for both perception and visual memory. Though some aspects of this view are debated, evidence from both sides will be explored here. In this review, we will discuss the anatomical and functional architecture of the entire system and the implications of these structures in visual perception and memory.

The neurobiology of cognitive disorders in temporal lobe epilepsy

Cognitive impairment, particularly memory disruption, is a major complicating feature of epilepsy. This Review will begin with a focus on the problem of memory impairment in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). We present a brief overview of anatomical substrates of memory disorders in TLE, followed by a discussion of how our understanding of these disorders has been improved by studying the outcomes of anterior temporal lobectomy. The clinical efforts made to predict which patients are at greatest risk of experiencing adverse cognitive outcomes following epilepsy surgery are also considered. Finally, we examine the vastly changing view of TLE, including findings demonstrating that anatomical abnormalities extend far outside the temporal lobe, and that cognitive impairments extend beyond memory function. Linkage between these distributed cognitive and anatomical abnormalities point to a new understanding of the anatomical architecture of cognitive impairment in epilepsy. Clarifying the origin of these cognitive and anatomical abnormalities, their progression over time and, most importantly, methods for protecting cognitive and brain health in epilepsy, present a challenge to neurologists.

Using High-Resolution MR Imaging at 7T to Evaluate the Anatomy of the Midbrain Dopaminergic System

Dysfunction of DA neurotransmission from the SN and VTA has been implicated in neuropsychiatric diseases, including Parkinson disease and schizophrenia. Unfortunately, these midbrain DA structures are difficult to define on clinical MR imaging. To more precisely evaluate the anatomic architecture of the DA midbrain, we scanned healthy participants with a 7T MR imaging system. Here we contrast the performance of high-resolution T2- and T2*-weighted GRASE and FFE MR imaging scans at 7T. Ten healthy participants were scanned by using GRASE and FFE sequences. CNRs were calculated among the SN, VTA, and RN, and their volumes were estimated by using a segmentation algorithm. Both GRASE and FFE scans revealed visible contrast between midbrain DA regions. The GRASE scan showed higher CNRs compared with the FFE scan. The T2* contrast of the FFE scan further delineated substructures and microvasculature within the midbrain SN and RN. Segmentation and volume estimation of the midbrain SN, RN, and VTA showed individual differences in the size and volume of these structures across participants. Both GRASE and FFE provide sufficient CNR to evaluate the anatomy of the midbrain DA system. The FFE in particular reveals vascular details and substructure information within the midbrain regions that could be useful for examining structural changes in midbrain pathologies.

Non-Destructive, High-Resolution 3-Dimensional Visualization of a Cardiac Defect in the Chick Embryo Resembling Complex Heart Defect in Humans Using Micro-Computed Tomography

Nondestructive, high-resolution 3-dimensional (3D) imaging of the embryonic heart remains a challenge in cardiovascular development research. In the past, several imaging techniques (eg, magnetic resonance microscopy, optical coherence tomography) were tested for their suitability to visualize the 3D morphology of embryonic hearts. Most of these imaging tools have their drawbacks with respect to resolution and depth penetration. Here we present, to the best of our knowledge, the first high-resolution 3D images of normal and malformed embryonic chick hearts at the 10 μm level generated by microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) examination of critical point-dried heart specimens. Cardiac anatomy is demonstrated in great details with respect to myocardial fiber arrangement and trabeculations as well as atrioventricular (AV) and semilunar valves. Positions of great vessels with associated ventricular septal defects are visualized in high quality in malformed hearts. Figure 1A shows the normal 4-chambered heart of a day 9 chick embryo with correct positioning of the heart chambers and great vessels. Figure 1B depicts an image of a malformed embryonic chick heart in which both great arteries are significantly shifted toward the right side with extreme dextroposition of the aorta, and both great arteries arise from the right ventricle (double outlet right ventricle [DORV]). Note also that both atrial appendages are located to the left of the great arteries (left juxtaposition of atrial appendages [LJAA]). The cardiac defect that we present here in the chick embryo resembles a rare complex heart defect known in humans, as depicted in a classic drawing by Frank Netter, MD, in the Netter Collection of Medical Illustrations – Heart (Figure 1C, reproduced with permission from netterimages.com). Figure 1. Photographs of day 9 embryonic chick hearts (A and B, respectively) and a drawing of a malformed human …

Anatomical and temporal architecture of theory of mind: A MEG insight into the early stages

Representation of others' actions and mental states leads to the activation of several brain networks: the mentalizing and the “mirror neuron” systems as well as a “low level” social perception component. However, respective activations of the regions belonging to these networks remain unknown with respect to chronometrical data when static drawing stimuli are presented. To determine anatomical and temporal characteristics of theory of mind processes, magnetic signals were measured in 21 subjects during a validated nonverbal attribution of intentions task. Minimum norm estimation provides chronometric and localization data showing that regions known to be involved in the mentalizing, “mirror neuron” and social perception networks have simultaneous activations between 100 and 700ms post-stimulus, a period which may be thought as corresponding to early stages of social processes. Among some regions, different profiles as well as modulations regarding experimental conditions suggest functional distinctions between these structures, pleading for a cooperative nature of these networks. While the left temporo-parietal area and superior temporal sulcus seem more specialized in social cues coding, we demonstrate that their right homologues, as well as the right inferior parietal cortex, are preferentially recruited during attribution of intentions stimuli compared to scenarios based on physical causality from 200 to 600ms.

Chronic recurrent Gorham-Stout syndrome with cutaneous involvement

Type IV osteolysis or Gorham-Stout syndrome is a rare condition characterized by recurrent vascular tumors that disrupt normal anatomical architecture. Gorham-Stout syndrome is most commonly associated with the skeletal system with resulting replacement of bone with scar tissue following tumor regression. The loss of entire bones has given Gorham-Stout syndrome the moniker vanishing bone disease. Natural progression of Gorham-Stout syndrome is characterized by spontaneous disease resolution. However, rare variants of recurrent, progressive, and/or systemic disease have been reported. We present a patient with a history of recurrent Gorham- Stout disease refractory to all treatment options considered. In addition to skeletal disease, our patient had soft tissue and cutaneous involvement, thus reflecting the more aggressive disease variant. Previous surgical attempts to control disease had been ineffective and the patient was referred to us for radiation therapy. Treatment with external beam radiation therapy resulted in good local control and symptom palliation, but full disease resolution was never accomplished. In addition to presentation of this patient, a review of the literature on etiological hypotheses and past/future treatment options was conducted and is included.

The para-aortic ridge plays a key role in the formation of the renal, adrenal and gonadal vascular systems.

Renal, adrenal, gonadal, ureteral and inferior phrenic arteries vary in their level of origin and in their calibre, number and precise anatomical relationship to other structures. Studies of the origin and early development of these arteries have evoked sharp disputes. The ladder theory of Felix, which states that 'All the mesonephric arteries may persist; from them are formed the phrenic, suprarenal, renal and internal spermatic arteries' has been generally quoted in the anatomical textbooks without rigorous verification for 100 years. In this study, we re-examined this theory by performing micro-injection of dye and resin into rat (Rattus norvegicus) embryos. Our results revealed that most of the mesonephric arteries had degenerated before the metanephros started its ascent. The definitive renal, adrenal, gonadal, ureteral and inferior phrenic arteries appeared as new branches from the gonadal artery and/or directly from the abdominal aorta to the para-aortic ridge. Coincidental to this, the anatomical architecture of the inter-renal vascular cage, which consists of the interlobar and arcuate arteries and their collateral veins, was completed within the developing metanephros. We demonstrated that the delicate renal vascular cage switched from the primary renal artery to the definitive renal artery and that the route of venous drainage changed from the posterior cardinal vein to the inferior (caudal) vena cava.

In vivo vomeronasal stimulation reveals sensory encoding of conspecific and allospecific cues by the mouse accessory olfactory bulb

The rodent vomeronasal system plays a critical role in mediating pheromone-evoked social and sexual behaviors. Recent studies of the anatomical and molecular architecture of the vomeronasal organ (VNO) and of its synaptic target, the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB), have suggested that unique features underlie vomeronasal sensory processing. However, the neuronal representation of pheromonal information leading to specific behavioral and endocrine responses has remained largely unexplored due to the experimental difficulty of precise stimulus delivery to the VNO. To determine the basic rules of information processing in the vomeronasal system, we developed a unique preparation that allows controlled and repeated stimulus delivery to the VNO and combined this approach with multisite recordings of neuronal activity in the AOB. We found that urine, a well-characterized pheromone source in mammals, as well as saliva, activates AOB neurons in a manner that reliably encodes the donor animal's sexual and genetic status. We also identified a significant fraction of AOB neurons that respond robustly and selectively to predator cues, suggesting an expanded role for the vomeronasal system in both conspecific and interspecific recognition. Further analysis reveals that mixed stimuli from distinct sources evoke synergistic responses in AOB neurons, thereby supporting the notion of integrative processing of chemosensory information.

Emotions in action through the looking glass1

The paper aims at highlighting how our primary understanding of others' actions is rooted in the mirror mechanism. To this end, the anatomical architecture of the mirror neuron system for action will be outlined as well as its role in grasping goals and intentions in others' motor behaviour. One further step through the looking glass of social cognition will be referring to the ubiquitous emotional colouring of actions and considering its links with the motor domain. This will allow a clearer perspective on the mechanism underlying our abilities for emotional understanding and on cases in which these abilities are amiss, as in autistic spectrum disorders.

An integrated diagnostic approach to understand drought tolerance in mulberry ( Morus indica L.)

Four popular mulberry cultivars ( Morus indica L. cvs.V-1, MR-2, S-36 and K-2) were assessed for drought tolerance with an integration of selective approaches. The potted plants were subjected to two watering treatments for 75 days: control pots were watered up to 100% field capacity (FC) and stressed pots were maintained at 25–30% FC. Net photosynthetic rate ( P n ), stomatal conductance ( g s ), transpiration rate ( E) and instantaneous water use efficiency (WUE i ) were the key parameters to assess photosynthetic gas exchange performance. Drought caused marked down-regulation in leaf gas exchange in all cultivars (cvs) except V-1 which maintained better P n , g s , E and higher WUE i under severe water deficit. All the four cvs also showed differential antioxidative responses under water stress. Higher concentrations of carotenoids, ascorbic acid, glutathione, α-tocopherol and proline were observed in the leaf extracts of V-1, while minimum accumulation of those metabolites was recorded with K-2 and S-36. An endogenous loss of α-tocopherol and higher lipid peroxidation were encountered in K-2, S-36 and MR-2, whereas V-1 showed minimum lipid peroxidation under water deficit regimes. Comparative morpho-anatomical analysis revealed a well-developed root system and a better anatomical architecture in V-1 which could further contribute tolerance during drought stress.

Genetic Models to Study Quiescent Stem Cells and Their Niches

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) have been defined by their ability to establish long-term hematopoiesis in myelo-ablated hosts. Prospective isolation using combinations of cell-surface markers and/or dye exclusion can yield highly purified and nearly homogeneous phenotypically defined cells that repopulate irradiated hosts. Although highly informative, these types of analyses may not necessarily reflect ongoing homeostatic hematopoiesis. HSCs are also described as being quiescent. This has been demonstrated by cell cycle analysis of phenotypically defined HSCs. Some studies have challenged the existence of truly quiescent HSCs, suggesting that they continuously cycle, albeit with very slow kinetics. Here we present a pulse-chase system based on the controllable incorporation of H2B-GFP into nucleosomes, which allows the identification, purification, and functional analysis of viable label-retaining cells. Our data complement and extend recent studies using similar strategies. These, together with our present studies, find a rare, quiescent or dormant subset within the population of stringently defined HSC phenotypes. To date, three types of niches, endosteal, vascular, and reticular, have been described; herein we review the cellular and spatial nature of these microenvironments. We propose that HSC label-retention combined with genetically manipulated stem cell niches will allow us to determine their anatomical architecture, to address HSC cell fate proliferation kinetics, and to begin to dissect the molecular cross talk among stem cells and niche cells in vivo during both normal and perturbed homeostasis.

Microanatomic study on retrosigmoid keyhole approach

Objective The aim of the present study was to assess the retrosigmoid keyhole approach on a cadaveric model by using a neuronavigation system, and explore its indications. Methods Six cadaveric heads (twelve sides) injected with colored latex were used. The retrosigmoid keyhole approach was followed by the conventional retrosigmoid approach. The exposure areas of petroclivus and brainstem were measured and calculated under stryker frameless stereotactic navigation. Angles of attack for six different target points, which included the Meckle's cave, trigeminal nerve root, internal auditory meatal, facial nerve root, jugular foramen and glossopharyngeal nerve root, were measured. The exposure area and angles of attack between the two approacbes were compared and analyzed by student's t test. Results The retrosigmoid keyhole approach exposes nearly the same anatomic architecture as that of conventional approach, namely, it can expose the area superior to the anteriolateral margin of the tentorium, inferior to the foramen Magnum, medial to the anteriolateral of pons and medulla. The anatomic structure deeply seated in the ispilateral petroclivus can also be observed clearly through the cranial nerve intervals. Exposure area at the petroclivus and brainstem under the retrosignaoid keyhole approach was (304.73±28.93) mm2 and (143.9±31.87)mm2, respectively. The counterpart of the conventional retrosigmoid approach was (346.43 ±42.80) mm2 and (136.05±9.05) mm2, respectively. No statistical difference lies in the exposure area (P > 0.05). The vertical and horizontal attack angles under the conventional approach were wider than those of the keyhole approach at the selected six target points (P < 0.05). Conclusion The retrosigmoid keyhole approach provides similar exposure with that of the conventional retrosigmoid approach, not only can be used in microvascular decompression, also can be used to resect tumors located in cerebellopontine angle, upper petroclivus, middle petroclivus, anteriolateral of midbrain and pons. Key words: Keyhole surgery; Retrosigmoid approach; Cerebellopontine angle; Microanatomy

An Elaborate Data Set Characterizing the Mechanical Response of the Foot

Mechanical properties of the foot are responsible for its normal function and play a role in various clinical problems. Specifically, we are interested in quantification of foot mechanical properties to assist the development of computational models for movement analysis and detailed simulations of tissue deformation. Current available data are specific to a foot region and the loading scenarios are limited to a single direction. A data set that incorporates regional response, to quantify individual function of foot components, as well as the overall response, to illustrate their combined operation, does not exist. Furthermore, the combined three-dimensional loading scenarios while measuring the complete three-dimensional deformation response are lacking. When combined with an anatomical image data set, development of anatomically realistic and mechanically validated models becomes possible. Therefore, the goal of this study was to record and disseminate the mechanical response of a foot specimen, supported by imaging data. Robotic testing was conducted at the rear foot, forefoot, metatarsal heads, and the foot as a whole. Complex foot deformations were induced by single mode loading, e.g., compression, and combined loading, e.g., compression and shear. Small and large indenters were used for heel and metatarsal head loading, an elevated platform was utilized to isolate the rear foot and forefoot, and a full platform compressed the whole foot. Three-dimensional tool movements and reaction loads were recorded simultaneously. Computed tomography scans of the same specimen were collected for anatomical reconstruction a priori. The three-dimensional mechanical response of the specimen was nonlinear and viscoelastic. A low stiffness region was observed starting with contact between the tool and foot regions, increasing with loading. Loading and unloading responses portrayed hysteresis. Loading range ensured capturing the toe and linear regions of the load deformation curves for the dominant loading direction, with the rates approximating those of walking. A large data set was successfully obtained to characterize the overall and the regional mechanical responses of an intact foot specimen under single and combined loads. Medical imaging complemented the mechanical testing data to establish the potential relationship between the anatomical architecture and mechanical responses and to further develop foot models that are mechanically realistic and anatomically consistent. This combined data set has been documented and disseminated in the public domain to promote future development in foot biomechanics.