Flux Analysis Research Articles

Yeast9: a consensus genome-scale metabolic model for S. cerevisiae curated by the community

Genome-scale metabolic models (GEMs) can facilitate metabolism-focused multi-omics integrative analysis. Since Yeast8, the yeast-GEM of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, published in 2019, has been continuously updated by the community. This has increased the quality and scope of the model, culminating now in Yeast9. To evaluate its predictive performance, we generated 163 condition-specific GEMs constrained by single-cell transcriptomics from osmotic pressure or reference conditions. Comparative flux analysis showed that yeast adapting to high osmotic pressure benefits from upregulating fluxes through central carbon metabolism. Furthermore, combining Yeast9 with proteomics revealed metabolic rewiring underlying its preference for nitrogen sources. Lastly, we created strain-specific GEMs (ssGEMs) constrained by transcriptomics for 1229 mutant strains. Well able to predict the strains’ growth rates, fluxomics from those large-scale ssGEMs outperformed transcriptomics in predicting functional categories for all studied genes in machine learning models. Based on those findings we anticipate that Yeast9 will continue to empower systems biology studies of yeast metabolism.

Metabolic and transcriptomic reprogramming during contact inhibition-induced quiescence is mediated by YAP-dependent and YAP-independent mechanisms.

Metabolic rewiring during the proliferation-to-quiescence transition is poorly understood. Here, using a model of contact inhibition-induced quiescence, we conducted 13C-metabolic flux analysis in proliferating (P) and quiescent (Q) mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) to investigate this process. Q cells exhibit reduced glycolysis but increased TCA cycle flux and mitochondrial respiration. Reduced glycolytic flux in Q cells correlates with reduced glycolytic enzyme expression mediated by yes-associated protein (YAP) inhibition. The increased TCA cycle activity and respiration in Q cells is mediated by induced mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC) expression, rendering them vulnerable to MPC inhibition. The malate-to-pyruvate flux, which generates NADPH, is markedly reduced by modulating malic enzyme 1 (ME1) dimerization in Q cells. Conversely, the malate dehydrogenase 1 (MDH1)-mediated oxaloacetate-to-malate flux is reversed and elevated in Q cells, driven by high mitochondrial-derived malate levels, reduced cytosolic oxaloacetate, elevated MDH1 levels, and a high cytoplasmic NAD+/NADH ratio. Transcriptomic analysis revealed large number of genes are induced in Q cells, many of which are associated with the extracellular matrix (ECM), while YAP-dependent and cell cycle-related genes are repressed. The results suggest that high TCA cycle flux and respiration in Q cells are required to generate ATP and amino acids to maintain de-novo ECM protein synthesis and secretion.

Potential (co-)contamination of dairy milk with AFM1 and MC-LR and their synergistic interaction in inducing mitochondrial dysfunction in HepG2 cells

Several toxic metabolites, such as aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), are known to contaminate dairy milk. However, as mentioned in an external EFSA report, there is a knowledge gap regarding the carry-over of certain emerging toxins such as microcystin-LR (MC-LR). Therefore, this work aimed to develop an LC-MS/MS method for MC-LR quantification in dairy milk. Also, the method included AFM1 as a common fungal metabolite and applied to analyze 113 dairy milk samples collected directly after the end of the summer peak. Both toxins were below their LODs, keeping the question on MC-LR carry-over still unanswered. Moreover, an in silico analysis, using a 3D molecular modeling was performed, pointing to a possible interaction between MC-LR and milk proteins, especially β-lactoglobulin.Since AFM1 and MC-LR are hepatotoxic, their interaction in inducing mitochondrial dysfunction in HepG2 cells was investigated at low (subcytotoxic) concentrations. Live cell imaging-based assays showed an inhibition in cell viability, without involvement of caspase-3/7, and a hyperpolarization in the mitochondrial membrane potential after the exposure to a mixture of 100 ng mL−1 AFM1 and 1000 ng mL−1 MC-LR for 48h. Extracellular flux analysis revealed inhibitions of several key parameters of mitochondrial function (basal respiration, ATP-linked respiration, and spare respiratory capacity).

Electromagnetic Signal Analysis for Electrical Fault Diagnosis in Synchronous Generators

This study investigates the enhancement of fault diagnostics in synchronous generators by incorporating electromagnetic signal analysis with conventional diagnostic methodologies. The critical role of synchronous generators in maintaining power system stability and efficiency in industrial and power plant environments is underscored. Finite element modeling (FEM) is employed to simulate various fault conditions, such as stator and rotor winding faults. This study proposes a method that integrates stator current and stray magnetic flux analysis to identify five distinct types of short-circuit faults in stator and rotor windings, thereby enhancing the diagnostic capabilities for electrical faults in synchronous generators. This approach successfully identifies these electrical faults using non-invasive methods, offering a cost-effective solution that enhances fault detection. These findings are based on simulation results and serve as a preliminary stage for further validation through experimental studies. This integration is crucial for the development of efficient diagnostic systems that are capable of adapting to complex fault patterns, reducing human intervention, and streamlining maintenance operations, thus improving the reliability of synchronous generators globally.

Abstract Mo026: ATP-dependent citrate lyase Drives Left Ventricular Dysfunction by Metabolic Remodeling of the Heart

Background: Metabolic remodeling is a hallmark of the failing heart. Oncometabolic stress during cancer increases the activity and abundance of the ATP-dependent citrate lyase (ACL, Acly ), which promotes histone acetylation and cardiac adaptation. ACL is critical for the de novo synthesis of lipids, but how these metabolic alterations contribute to cardiac structural and functional changes remains unclear. Methods: We utilized MyH6-Cas9 mice (male and female) and CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing to generate a cardiac-specific Acly knockdown (AclyKD) mouse model. To assess how the loss of Acly impacts cardiac energy substrate metabolism, we conducted positron emission tomography in vivo and ex vivo stable isotope tracer labelling using working heart preparation. We conducted a multi-omics analysis using RNA-sequencing and mass spectrometry-based metabolomics. Experimental data were integrated into computational modelling using the metabolic network CardioNet to identify significantly dysregulated metabolic processes at a systems level. Results: Loss of ACL expression causes a left-ventricular cardiomyopathy by histology and echocardiography. FDG-PET/CT imaging in male and female mice demonstrated an increased glucose uptake and utilization in AclyKD mice, suggesting a substrate switch from fatty acid oxidation towards glucose. These findings were corroborated by stable isotope tracing, demonstrating that AclyKD suppresses fatty acid oxidation while enhancing lipid remodelling. AclyKD also reduced the efflux of glucose-derived citrate from the mitochondria into the cytosol, confirming that citrate is required for reductive metabolism in the heart. Computational flux analysis and integrative multi-omics analysis indicate that ACL activity supports lipid biosynthesis in the heart. Blocking mitochondrial isocitrate dehydrogenase or alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase sensitized cardiomyocytes to ACL inhibition, and overexpressing cytosolic isocitrate dehydrogenase was sufficient to prevent citrate accumulation. Conclusions: Our work demonstrates a previously undescribed function of ACL as a regulator of cardiac energy substrate metabolism and lipid modulation.

Abstract Tu111: Effect Of Grandmaternal Diabetes and High Fat Diet on Cardiometabolic Dysfunction in the Second Generation (F2) Newborns

Infants exposed to diabetic pregnancy are at higher risk of cardiomyopathy at birth and early onset cardiovascular disease (CVD) as adults. We have previously used a rat model to demonstrate that a combination of high fat diet (HFD) and late gestational diabetes causes impaired cardiac function in first generation (F1) newborn and adult offspring via mitochondrial dysfunction and metabolic stress. The objective of this study was to determine whether grandmaternal HFD and diabetes can cause inheritable CVD in second generation offspring (F2), even if the first generation is cross fostered during lactation and fed a standard control diet throughout life. Myocardial function in the F2 newborns was assessed using echocardiography and mitochondrial function in the isolated neonatal cardiomyocytes (NRCM) was assessed using extracellular flux analyses. Exposed F2 newborns had a higher birthweight (p=0.03) and blood glucose (p<0.0001) compared to control newborns and F1 generation parents (p=0.0002 and p<0.0001). Of significant interest, exposed F2 newborns had higher heart rates (p<0.0001), heart:body weight ratios (p<0.0001) and systolic dysfunction which was evident from lower ejection fraction (p<0.0001) and fractional shortening (p<0.0001) compared to control F2 newborns. While control and combination exposed NRCM had similar basal respiration, exposed F2 NRCM had a higher proton leak (p=0.0004) which indicates damage to the inner mitochondrial membrane and/or electron transport chain complex. There was also shift to higher glycolysis at baseline (p=0.005), but blunted glucose-induced glycolytic rate (p=0.04) in F2 newborns compared to controls. Overall results suggest that maternal HFD and diabetes causes multigenerational programming of cardiometabolic dysfunction in F2 offspring despite the F1 parent having normal diet, weight, and euglycemia during the pregnancy.

Abstract Mo001: Inhibition of TAOK1-mediated Cardiomyocyte Death Attenuates Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiotoxicity

Background and Objective: Doxorubicin (Dox)-induced cardiotoxicity (DIC) is one of the most serious side effects of cancer treatments. However, no effective treatment is currently available. In this study, we aimed to identify novel therapeutic targets using CRISPR/Cas9-based screening of human cardiomyocytes derived from pluripotent stem cells (hPSC-CMs). Methods and Results: We performed a kinase-focused CRISPR gene knockout screen in hPSC-CMs and identified thousand and one amino acid protein kinase 1 (TAOK1 ) as a potential regulator of DOX-induced cardiomyocyte death. We generated TAOK1-knockout (KO) hPSC-CMs using CRISPR/Cas9 and found that TAOK1-KO hPSC-CMs showed higher cell viability than control KO cells after 1μM DOX treatment (49.3% vs. 30.5%, P = 0.03). TAOK1-KO decreased DOX-induced ROS production (-58.8%, P = 0.01) and DNA damage (-28.8%, P < 0.01) in hPSC-CMs. Transcriptome analysis using RNA-seq of TAOK1-KO hPSC-CMs identified 483 differentially expressed genes, and Hallmark pathway analysis revealed upregulation of the oxidative phosphorylation pathway (FDR < 0.01) in TAOK1-KO hPSC-CMs compared to the control. Extracellular flux analysis demonstrated higher basal and maximal respiratory capacity in TAOK1-KO hPSC-CMs compared to control after DOX treatment (1.2 vs. 0.6, and 3.8 vs. 2.0 pmol/min/μg, respectively, P < 0.01 for all). Next, we overexpressed TAOK1 in hPSC-CMs using adenovirus vector and found that TAOK1 overexpression (OE) augmented DOX-induced cell viability reduction in hPSC-CMs compared to control after 0.5μM DOX treatment (-63.4 % vs. -19.2%, P < 0.01). Western blot analysis showed that DOX-induced p38 phosphorylation was suppressed by TAOK1-KO (P < 0.01) and enhanced (P = 0.01) by TAOK1-OE in hPSC-CMs. Augmented DOX-induced cardiomyocyte death in TAOK1-OE hPSC-CMs was partially rescued by inhibitors of p38 MAPK or apoptosis. Lastly, we demonstrated that TAOK1 suppression using AAV-mediated gene silencing mitigated the decline in the left ventricular ejection fraction in a mouse model of DIC (-30.0% vs. -17.7%, P < 0.01). Histological analysis of heart tissue revealed that TAOK1 suppression reduced myocardial fibrosis and apoptosis of cardiac cells in a mouse model of DIC (6.6% vs. 4.3%, P = 0.02, and 0.31% vs. 0.18%, P< 0.01, respectively). Conclusion: Our results suggest that TAOK1 regulates DOX-induced cardiomyocyte death; thus, its inhibition could be a potential therapeutic approach for DIC.

Separation of reproductive decline from lifespan extension during methionine restriction.

Lifespan-extending interventions are generally thought to result in reduced fecundity. The generality of this principle and how it may extend to nutrition and metabolism is not understood. We considered dietary methionine restriction (MR), a lifespan-extending intervention linked to Mediterranean and plant-based diets. Using a chemically defined diet that we developed for Drosophila melanogaster, we surveyed the nutritional landscape in the background of MR and found that folic acid, a vitamin linked to one-carbon metabolism, notably was the lone nutrient that restored reproductive capacity while maintaining lifespan extension. In vivo isotope tracing, metabolomics and flux analysis identified the tricarboxylic cycle and redox coupling as major determinants of the MR-folic acid benefits, in part, as they related to sperm function. Together these findings suggest that dietary interventions optimized for longevity may be separable from adverse effects such as reproductive decline.

Internal Tides Reverse Tidal Currents Around Southern Taiwan

AbstractWe present a highly unusual case in southern Taiwan where internal tides (ITs) completely reverse the barotropic currents. A 3D baroclinic model is first validated and confirms the unexpected tidal current in that area. A series of sensitivity simulations are then used to progressively reveal the exact cause. Contrary to popular belief, a large canyon in that area is not responsible for the flow reversal. Results from using a relaxation technique in the model together with an energy flux analysis indicate that the energy of the large ITs emanated from the Luzon Strait is converted to the barotropic energy near the steep slope, which generates a local circulation and reverses the tidal flow there.

Direct Observational Evidence of Multi-epoch Massive Star Formation in G24.47+0.49

Using new continuum and molecular line data from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array Three-millimeter Observations of Massive Star-forming Regions (ATOMS) survey and archival Very Large Array, 4.86 GHz data, we present direct observational evidence of hierarchical triggering relating three epochs of massive star formation in a ringlike H ii region, G24.47+0.49. We find from radio flux analysis that it is excited by a massive star(s) of spectral type O8.5V–O8V from the first epoch of star formation. The swept-up ionized ring structure shows evidence of secondary collapse, and within this ring, a burst of massive star formation is observed in different evolutionary phases, which constitutes the second epoch. ATOMS spectral line (e.g., HCO+(1–0)) observations reveal an outer concentric molecular gas ring expanding at a velocity of ∼9 km s−1, constituting the direct and unambiguous detection of an expanding molecular ring. It harbors twelve dense molecular cores with surface mass density greater than 0.05 g cm−2, a threshold typical of massive star formation. Half of them are found to be subvirial and thus in gravitational collapse making them the third epoch of potential massive star-forming sites.

Genome-scale community modelling elucidates the metabolic interaction in Indian type-2 diabetic gut microbiota

Type-2 diabetes (T2D) is a rapidly growing multifactorial metabolic disorder that induces the onset of various diseases in the human body. The compositional and metabolic shift of the gut microbiota is a crucial factor behind T2D. Hence, gaining insight into the metabolic profile of the gut microbiota is essential for revealing their role in regulating the metabolism of T2D patients. Here, we have focused on the genome-scale community metabolic model reconstruction of crucial T2D-associated gut microbes. The model-based analysis of biochemical flux in T2D and healthy gut conditions showed distinct biochemical signatures and diverse metabolic interactions in the microbial community. The metabolic interactions encompass cross-feeding of short-chain fatty acids, amino acids, and vitamins among individual microbes within the community. In T2D conditions, a reduction in the metabolic flux of acetate, butyrate, vitamin B5, and bicarbonate was observed in the microbial community model, which can impact carbohydrate metabolism. The decline in butyrate levels is correlated with both insulin resistance and diminished glucose metabolism in T2D patients. Compared to the healthy gut, an overall reduction in glucose consumption and SCFA production flux was estimated in the T2D gut environment. Moreover, the decreased consumption profiles of branch chain amino acids (BCAAs) and aromatic amino acids (AAAs) in the T2D gut microbiota can be a distinct biomarker for T2D. Hence, the flux-level analysis of the microbial community model can provide insights into the metabolic reprogramming in diabetic gut microbiomes, which may be helpful in personalized therapeutics and diet design against T2D.

Unveiling Allosteric Regulation and Binding Mechanism of BRD9 through Molecular Dynamics Simulations and Markov Modeling.

Bromodomain-containing protein 9 (BRD9) is a key player in chromatin remodeling and gene expression regulation, and it is closely associated with the development of various diseases, including cancers. Recent studies have indicated that inhibition of BRD9 may have potential value in the treatment of certain cancers. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, Markov modeling and principal component analysis were performed to investigate the binding mechanisms of allosteric inhibitor POJ and orthosteric inhibitor 82I to BRD9 and its allosteric regulation. Our results indicate that binding of these two types of inhibitors induces significant structural changes in the protein, particularly in the formation and dissolution of α-helical regions. Markov flux analysis reveals notable changes occurring in the α-helicity near the ZA loop during the inhibitor binding process. Calculations of binding free energies reveal that the cooperation of orthosteric and allosteric inhibitors affects binding ability of inhibitors to BRD9 and modifies the active sites of orthosteric and allosteric positions. This research is expected to provide new insights into the inhibitory mechanism of 82I and POJ on BRD9 and offers a theoretical foundation for development of cancer treatment strategies targeting BRD9.

Hyperpolarized Nano-NMR Platform for Quantification of Mass Limited Samples.

Metabolic flux analysis of live cells using NMR enables the study of cancer metabolism and response to treatment. However, conventional NMR platforms require often prohibitively high numbers of cells to achieve significant resolution. In this work, we present a double 1H/13C resonance NMR probe consisting of a solenoid coil with a less than 100 nL sensitive region. In-solution robustness is demonstrated through measurement of decaying hyperpolarized signals. A suspension of live cells and hyperpolarized (HP) [1-13C]pyruvate is loaded in the coil, and dynamic changes in pyruvate and lactate concentrations by fractions of femtomoles are detected from just 2000 live cells at a time, in seconds. Through an integrated microfluidic channel, the probe is used as high-throughput platform to perform nondestructive quantitative analysis of metabolic flux of different leukemia cell lines with sensitivity to detect on target treatment response. This approach platform provides an approach to study mass-limited samples and living cells with dramatically enhanced sensitivity in real time.

Ala-Cys-Cys-Ala dipeptide dimer alleviates problematic cysteine and cystine levels in media formulations and enhances CHO cell growth and metabolism

Cysteine and cystine are essential amino acids present in mammalian cell cultures. While contributing to biomass synthesis, recombinant protein production, and antioxidant defense mechanisms, cysteine poses a major challenge in media formulations owing to its poor stability and oxidation to cystine, a cysteine dimer. Due to its poor solubility, cystine can cause precipitation of feed media, formation of undesired products, and consequently, reduce cysteine bioavailability. In this study, a highly soluble cysteine containing dipeptide dimer, Ala-Cys-Cys-Ala (ACCA), was evaluated as a suitable alternative to cysteine and cystine in CHO cell cultures. Replacing cysteine and cystine in basal medium with ACCA did not sustain cell growth. However, addition of ACCA at 4 mM and 8 mM to basal medium containing cysteine and cystine boosted cell growth up to 15% and 27% in CHO-GS and CHO–K1 batch cell cultures respectively and led to a proportionate increase in IgG titer. 13C-Metabolic flux analysis revealed that supplementation of ACCA reduced glycolytic fluxes by 20% leading to more efficient glucose metabolism in CHO–K1 cells. In fed-batch cultures, ACCA was able to replace cysteine and cystine in feed medium. Furthermore, supplementation of ACCA at high concentrations in basal medium eliminated the need for any cysteine equivalents in feed medium and increased cell densities and viabilities in fed-batch cultures without any significant impact on IgG charge variants. Taken together, this study demonstrates the potential of ACCA to improve CHO cell growth, productivity, and metabolism while also facilitating the formulation of cysteine- and cystine-free feed media. Such alternatives to cysteine and cystine will pave the way for enhanced biomanufacturing by increasing cell densities in culture and extending the storage of highly concentrated feed media as part of achieving intensified bioproduction processes.

Exploring ethylene insertion reaction mechanism in nickel complexes: a comparative study by the reaction force and reaction electronic flux in molecular and SiO2-supported catalysts.

This study investigates the ethylene insertion reaction mechanism for polymerization catalysis, aiming to discern differences between Ni-α-imine ketone-type catalyst and their SiO2-supported counterpart. The reaction force analysis unveils a more intricate mechanism with SiO2 support, shedding light on unexplored factors and elucidating the observed lower catalytic activity. Furthermore, reactivity indexes suggest earlier ethylene activation in the supported catalyst, potentially enhancing overall selectivity. Finally, the reaction electronic flux analysis provides detailed insights into the electronic activity at each step of the reaction mechanism. In sum, this study offers a comprehensive understanding of the ethylene insertion reaction mechanism in both molecular and supported catalysts, underscoring the pivotal role of structural and electronic factors in catalytic processes. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations were conducted using the ωB97XD functional and the 6-31 + G(d,p) basis sets with Gaussian16 software. Computational techniques utilized in this study encompassed the IRC method, reaction force analysis, and evaluation of electronic descriptors such as electronic chemical potential, molecular hardness, and electrophilicity reactivity indexes. Additionally, reaction electronic flux analysis was employed to investigate electronic activity along the reaction coordinate.

The marriage between stable isotope ecology and plant metabolomics - new perspectives for metabolic flux analysis and the interpretation of ecological archives.

Even though they share many thematical overlaps, plant metabolomics and stable isotope ecology have been rather separate fields mainly due to different mass spectrometry demands. New high-resolution bioanalytical mass spectrometers are now not only offering high-throughput metabolite identification but are also suitable for compound- and intramolecular position-specific isotope analysis in the natural isotope abundance range. In plant metabolomics, label-free metabolic pathway and metabolic flux analysis might become possible when applying this new technology. This is because changes in the commitment of substrates to particular metabolic pathways and the activation or deactivation of others alter enzyme-specific isotope effects. This leads to differences in intramolecular and compound-specific isotope compositions. In plant isotope ecology, position-specific isotope analysis in plant archives informed by metabolic pathway analysis could be used to reconstruct and separate environmental impacts on complex metabolic processes. A technology-driven linkage between the two disciplines could allow us to extract information on environment-metabolism interaction from plant archives such as tree rings but also within ecosystems. This would contribute to a holistic understanding of how plants react to environmental drivers, thus also providing helpful information on the trajectories of the vegetation under the conditions to come.

Analysis of the wall heat flux of the hypersonic shock wave/boundary layer interaction using a novel decomposition formula

Analysis of the wall heat flux of the hypersonic shock wave/boundary layer interaction using a novel decomposition formula

Challenges of Spatially Resolved Metabolism in Cancer Research.

Stable isotope-resolved metabolomics comprises a critical set of technologies that can be applied to a wide variety of systems, from isolated cells to whole organisms, to define metabolic pathway usage and responses to perturbations such as drugs or mutations, as well as providing the basis for flux analysis. As the diversity of stable isotope-enriched compounds is very high, and with newer approaches to multiplexing, the coverage of metabolism is now very extensive. However, as the complexity of the model increases, including more kinds of interacting cell types and interorgan communication, the analytical complexity also increases. Further, as studies move further into spatially resolved biology, new technical problems have to be overcome owing to the small number of analytes present in the confines of a single cell or cell compartment. Here, we review the overall goals and solutions made possible by stable isotope tracing and their applications to models of increasing complexity. Finally, we discuss progress and outstanding difficulties in high-resolution spatially resolved tracer-based metabolic studies.

6-Phosphogluconolactonase is critical for the efficient functioning of the pentose phosphate pathway.

The metabolic networks of microorganisms are remarkably robust to genetic and environmental perturbations. This robustness stems from redundancies such as gene duplications, isoenzymes, alternative metabolic pathways, and also from non-enzymatic reactions. In the oxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway (oxPPP), 6-phosphogluconolactone hydrolysis into 6-phosphogluconate is catalysed by 6-phosphogluconolactonase (Pgl) but in the absence of the latter, the oxPPP flux is thought to be maintained by spontaneous hydrolysis. However, in Δpgl Escherichia coli, an extracellular pathway can also contribute to pentose phosphate synthesis. This raises question as to whether the intracellular non-enzymatic reaction can compensate for the absence of 6-phosphogluconolactonase and, ultimately, on the role of 6-phosphogluconolactonase in central metabolism. Our results validate that the bypass pathway is active in the absence of Pgl, specifically involving the extracellular spontaneous hydrolysis of gluconolactones to gluconate. Underthese conditions, metabolic flux analysis reveals that this bypass pathway accounts for the entire flux into the oxPPP. This alternative metabolic route-partially extracellular-sustains the flux through the oxPPP necessary for cell growth, albeit at a reduced rate in the absence of Pgl. Importantly, these findings imply that intracellular non-enzymatic hydrolysis of 6-phosphogluconolactone does not compensate for the absence of Pgl. This underscores the crucial role of Pgl in ensuring the efficient functioning of the oxPPP.

Norovirus NS1/2 protein increases glutaminolysis for efficient viral replication.

Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that rely on host cell metabolism for successful replication. Thus, viruses rewire host cell pathways involved in central carbon metabolism to increase the availability of building blocks for successful propagation. However, the underlying mechanisms of virus-induced alterations to host metabolism are largely unknown. Noroviruses (NoVs) are highly prevalent pathogens that cause sporadic and epidemic viral gastroenteritis. In the present study, we uncovered several strain-specific and shared host cell metabolic requirements of three murine norovirus (MNV) strains, MNV-1, CR3, and CR6. While all three strains required glycolysis, glutaminolysis, and the pentose phosphate pathway for optimal infection of macrophages, only MNV-1 relied on host oxidative phosphorylation. Furthermore, the first metabolic flux analysis of NoV-infected cells revealed that both glycolysis and glutaminolysis are upregulated during MNV-1 infection of macrophages. Glutamine deprivation affected the viral lifecycle at the stage of genome replication, resulting in decreased non-structural and structural protein synthesis, viral assembly, and egress. Mechanistic studies further showed that MNV infection and overexpression of the non-structural protein NS1/2 increased the enzymatic activity of the rate-limiting enzyme glutaminase. In conclusion, the inaugural investigation of NoV-induced alterations to host glutaminolysis identified NS1/2 as the first viral molecule for RNA viruses that regulates glutaminolysis either directly or indirectly. This increases our fundamental understanding of virus-induced metabolic alterations and may lead to improvements in the cultivation of human NoVs.