Analysis Of Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Soil Ecosystem Services in Urban Parks as a Basis for Better Urban Planning: The Case of Mexico City

Until now, the contribution of soils in urban spaces has been underestimated and, as a result, the services they provide have been severely undervalued in urban planning. This article aims to address this issue through a study of Chapultepec Park in Mexico City. We provide two methodological proposals for the analysis of soil ecosystem services characterized by the interaction of natural and anthropic processes: the morpho-pedological landscapes (MpL), in which we quantify soil carbon sequestration (SOC Mg ha−1) and the comparison of two methods for the analysis of hydraulic conductivity: Pedotransfer functions (PTF) and direct measurement with a double ring infiltrometer. Among the 12 MpL, we found the highest SOC content in slopes with mixed tree vegetation and Phaeozem soils. However, SOC retention decreased by 40%–50% due to sealing surfaces. For infiltration measures, despite the diversity of soils and vegetation, direct measurements values are highly homogeneous, while values calculated using PTFs better reflect the morphopedological landscape heterogeneity. In all the MpLs, the hydraulic conductivity was higher than the maximum rainfall intensity report, indicating that the soils in Chapultepec Park, despite the differences in soils and intensity of use, provide the ecosystem service of infiltration. These results would allow the establishment of a baseline for monitoring these services and provide information to decision makers and urban planners seeking to reduce the construction of gray infrastructure that seals soils and reduces their capacity to provide these ecosystem services.

Flood regulation ecosystem services analysis and security pattern optimization for resilient management adapted to the complex terrain of coastal estuaries: A case study in Xiamen

The flood risk in coastal areas has been exacerbated by global climate change. Research on flood risk assessment is emerging from the perspective of supply and demand for flood regulation ecosystem services (FRES). However, there are still limitations in the evaluation of lowland regulation, implementation of intelligent algorithms, comparison of multi-grain FRES supply and demand, and overall optimization of security pattern. Therefore, we propose a comprehensive FRES supply assessment method that incorporates soil and vegetation, lowland, and water regulations. Additionally, we introduce the random forest model to enhance the FRES demand assessment approach. Two grain sizes of the sub-catchment area and grid unit are used to compare FRES supply and demand. Using Xiamen as a case study, this research unveils the following findings: (1) Significant disparities exist between the assessment outcomes of FRES based on multiple types of regulatory services and those solely considering soil and vegetation regulation. The areas with high FRES supply extend beyond upper mountain forests to include local lower plains exhibiting strong capabilities for lowland or water system regulation. (2) Consistent yet distinct results are observed when comparing two grain sizes. Imbalances in supply and demand occur in estuaries, bays, and densely built-up regions. Sub-catchment units exhibit wider distribution and concentration, while grid units display more dispersed patterns. (3) In terms of in-situ regulation, 26.77 km2 ecological protection area, 9.85 km2 ecological restoration area, and 119.59 km2 construction land flood control intervention area are demarcated. From a directional regulation perspective, 22 FRES corridors connecting source and sink areas along with 24 pinch points are identified. Optimizing security patterns through coordinated management of FRES supply and demand can enhance the resilience of coastal estuaries.

Value Assessment and Prediction of Regulating Ecosystem Services in Hainan Tropical Rainforest National Park, China

Ecosystem services serve as a bridge between the ecological environment and human society. The quantitative analysis and forecasting of ecosystem services can provide references for regional eco-environmental assessments and land-use planning for the future. In this study, taking Hainan Tropical Rainforest National Park (HTRNP) as an example, the value of regulating ecosystem services (RESs) in 2020 was assessed via ArcGIS 10.1 and the InVEST 3.5 model, and the per-unit value of RESs was calculated for different LULC types. In addition, in accordance with the Overall Planning for HTRNP and the objective of optimizing RESs, the value of RESs in short-term (to 2030) and long-term (to 2050) scenarios was forecast via a linear programming model. The results are as follows: (1) The RES value of HTRNP in 2020 was CNY 2090.67 × 108, with climate regulation accounting for the largest proportion; the spatial distribution of RESs in the eastern and central areas was higher than that in the western area, but different indicators of RESs differed in their spatial patterns in varied geographic units. (2) The natural forest ecosystem in HTRNP accounts for 76.94% of the total area but 84.82% of the total value of RESs. The per-unit value is ranked from highest to lowest as follows: montane rainforests > wetlands > lowland rainforests > lowland secondary rainforests > tropical coniferous forests > deciduous monsoon rainforests > tropical cloud forests > shrub forests > timber forests > economic forests > rubber forests > grasslands > farmlands > settlements. (3) In the short-term scenario, the value of RESs is CNY 2216.64 × 108, an increase of CNY 118.97 × 108 compared to 2020, with an increase rate of 5.67%. In the long-term scenario, the value of RESs is CNY 2472.48 × 108, an increase of CNY 374.81 × 108 compared to 2020, with an increase rate of 17.87%. The results reveal the significance of ecosystem services in the national park and can inform more targeted and scientifically sound decision-making in the future.

Cost-efficiency analysis of multiple ecosystem services across forest management regimes

Forest management is at the crossroads of economic, environmental, and social goals, often requiring strategic trade-offs. As global demands surge, it's vital to employ management strategies fostering multifunctional landscapes, enabling ecosystem integrity while procuring resources. Historically, the boreal forest in Fennoscandia has been intensively managed for timber, causing environmental shifts and conflicts with biodiversity conservation and climate mitigation policies. Application of current management practices while increasing harvests are a threat to both biodiversity and carbon stocks. To explore this issue, we quantify the cost-efficiency of two forest management regimes: rotation forestry (RF) and continuous cover forestry (CCF), considering specific forest attributes like soil type (mineral and peat soils), site type (fertility classes) and tree stand age, which have been underexplored in previous research. We simulated 45,559 forest stands for 100 years in Northern boreal forests of Finland. We proposed two straightforward cost-efficiency indices (CEI) to evaluate the performance of these management regimes, specifically focusing on their impact on economic output, biodiversity conservation (measured as a biodiversity index for six forest vertebrates, including five bird species and one mammal) and carbon stock. Our findings suggest that continuous cover forestry holds the potential to deliver more cost-efficient ecosystem services and maintain greater biodiversity compared to rotation forestry approaches. Continuous cover forestry, however, is not optimal for all at management units, which calls for alternative management options depending on the stand characteristics. The cost-efficiency indices performance of rotation forestry and continuous cover forestry depend on the characteristics of the initial stand which is largely determined by the previous management of the stand. Our results contribute to guiding forest management towards enhanced sustainability and ecological balance. The great variation in stand characteristics suggest a need for diverse management strategies to create multifunctional landscapes. Our proposed cost-efficiency indices could serve as practical tools for decision-making.

Sustaining the brand and branding sustainability: landscape as homeland in Greenland’s visual marketing

Arctic destinations are continually reshaping their global identities to manage external expectations about the region. Existing portrayals of Greenland often stereotype the area as untouched wilderness or oversimplify its social, economic, and cultural realities. Our study combines visual analysis of cultural landscape and cultural ecosystem services (CES) to unveil a novel narrative in Greenland’s sustainable tourism branding we termed ‘landscape as homeland’. Empirically this research is based on the photographic database of Greenland’s national destination marketing organization. We explore Greenland’s destination branding as a strategic tool to define local meanings of sustainable tourism, homeland, and “Arcticness” in a branding that distinctively positions itself amidst Arctic destinations. Using pictured landscape as a dwelling place discerns locally valued CES, and realigns tourist engagements toward a culturally and ecologically integrated relationship. Applications of these findings extend to other rapidly changing regions seeking to expand economic opportunities, harnessing the synergy between destination branding and sustainable tourism. We reflect on the efficacy of our integrated CES and cultural landscape research to reveal local framings of the tourism-sustainability tension. We highlight the role of destination marketing organizations to bridge the gap between local identity, visitor expectations, and sustainable tourism development.

Trade-Off and Synergy Relationships and Driving Factor Analysis of Ecosystem Services in the Hexi Region

The Hexi region, located in a sensitive and fragile ecological zone in northwest China, requires a scientific assessment of ecosystem services and their interactions. Identifying the main factors influencing spatial distribution is crucial for the sustainable development and effective management of the region. This study evaluates key ecosystem services, including regulating services (water conservation, soil conservation, carbon storage) and provisioning services (NPP), using Spearman’s correlation and pixel-by-pixel spatial analysis to calculate spatial trade-offs and synergies. Geographic detectors were used to uncover the underlying driving mechanisms. The results show that: (1) From 2000 to 2020, soil conservation, NPP, and carbon storage showed fluctuating growth, while water conservation declined. Spatially, high-value areas of water conservation, carbon storage, and NPP were concentrated in the central and southern areas, while high values of soil conservation services were mainly in the northwest and southeast regions. (2) The trade-offs and synergies among various ecosystem services exhibit temporal shifts, along with spatial scale effects and heterogeneity. In the study area, the proportion of pixels showing a trade-off relationship between water conservation and soil conservation, and between water conservation and NPP, accounts for 48.21% and 21.42%, respectively. These trade-offs are mainly concentrated in the central and southeastern regions, while the northwestern counties predominantly exhibit synergies. (3) Precipitation was the dominant factor for water conservation, carbon storage, and NPP, as well as for the trade-offs among these services. Among natural factors, climatic factors were significantly more influential than socio-economic factors, and the interaction between two factors had a greater explanatory power than single factors.

Management strategies for the potential and value of mangrove forest ecosystem services in the Panango area of south Bolaang Mongondow regency

The Panango area is an area that has mangrove forests in its coastal areas that are used for ecotourism, fisheries, and environmental conservation. Mangrove forests in the area have the potential and value of important benefits to the surrounding community which has been using them for a long time, but data and information are not yet available, so it is necessary to identify and assess the ecosystem services in the area. The purpose of this study was to determine the potential and value of the benefits of mangrove ecosystem services in the Panango area in terms of provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting functions, and to determine strategies for managing the mangrove forest in the area. This research uses primary data obtained through field observations, namely observation of research objects, completion of questionnaires, and interviews with respondents. Secondary data was obtained from local government data and other data sources relevant to the research. The research data analysis technique was carried out by calculating the total economic value of each mangrove ecosystem service and SWOT analysis to determine mangrove area management strategies. This study concluded that the economic value of the potential and benefits of mangrove forest ecosystem services in the Panango area in total Rp. 26,259,380,092/year consisting of the value of service providers of Rp. 684,300,000/year, the potential for regulatory services as a wave breaker with a benefit value of Rp. 9,705,300,000/10 years, the potential value as a cultural service of Rp. 15,846,000,000/year, and the potential value as a supporting service of Rp. 23,780,092/year. Strategies that can be used in sustainable management of the potential and value of the benefits of mangrove forest ecosystem services in Panango area are through conservation efforts to protect and manage the area by involving joint participation between local governments and communities and other stakeholders.

A cost-benefit analysis of ecosystem services from restoring degraded soils to forest ecosystems in the Sahel

Techniques of degraded ecosystems restoration in the Sahel have largely contributed to slowing down desertification process. However, they are often very costly, requiring important manpower and financial resources. The economic benefits of such cases of land restoration are under-documented, especially in scientific literature. The aim of this study is to estimate the ecosystem benefits (market and non-market, direct and indirect) associated with changes in biodiversity induced by forest and landscape restoration (FLR) interventions in the Sahel, and to compare them with the costs of these interventions. Data has been compiled using individual and group surveys, floristic inventory, and existing literature. Ecosystem services framework has been used to structure the analysis. Financial and economic cost-benefit analysis have been compiled, based on the historical case of the managed Gourga forest (Ouahigouya, North Burkina Faso), to estimate whether FLR brings benefits greater than it costs. The results show that restoration of the site is profitable over the first ten years thanks to farming activities, becoming unprofitable in years 11–45 after farming is completely stopped. This study opens up new prospects for improved design of FLR in the Sahel.

Constructing Ecological Networks Based on Ecosystem Services and Network Analysis in Chongqing, China

Ecological networks in mountainous regions are vital for enhancing ecosystem functionality and ensuring regional ecological stability, alleviating the contradiction between land use and ecological development in rapid urbanization. However, the complexity of mountains and the need to establish a connection between ecosystem services and human well-being present significant challenges in constructing ecological networks. This study proposes an idea that identifies and derives an optimal scenario for ecological networks, integrating insights from ecosystem services and network analysis. The aim of the ecological network is to improve and protect the ecosystem’s stability while better guiding sustainable development in mountainous regions’ urban and rural areas. This study uses qualitative evaluation methods and a graph theory model to obtain the ecological network’s sources and links. The results indicate that (1) 58 important ecological source areas were identified, with a total area of 5746 km2, mainly covered by woodland and water bodies. (2) An optimal and feasible scenario comprising 5 horizontal and 14 longitudinal corridors was established. Corridors rely primarily on the river system and mountains. (3) A total of 5 key ecological function areas and some ecological zones in important urban development areas were identified. Control measures for these ecological lands were proposed to enhance the effectiveness of ecosystem service construction. It can be concluded that identifying and deriving an optimal scenario of ecological networks in mountainous regions from the perspectives of ecosystem services and network analysis is feasible.

Monitoring spatiotemporal changes in land use/land cover and its impacts on ecosystem services in southern Zambia

Ecosystems play a vital role in human well-being, yet the widespread loss of ecosystem services due to human activities, including agricultural expansion and deforestation, remains a significant concern. Despite the wealth of research highlighting the importance of ecosystem conservation in Zambia, a critical gap exists in understanding the interplay between the conservation of ecosystem services and the socio-economic needs of local communities. This study presents a comparative analysis of ecosystem services in two distinct landscapes within southern Zambia: the protected area of Kafue National Park (KNP) and the agricultural landscape of Kalomo district between 2000–2020. Employing a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods, we evaluate the impacts of land/use and land cover (LULC) changes on selected ecosystem services, with a particular focus on carbon storage and the habitat quality of the trumpeter hornbill. The results of the comparison indicate that: (1) the Kalomo district has suffered from extensive land conversion, with forest changing to cropland, while KNP was well protected from encroachment, with forest area increasing over time; (2) carbon stocks and the habitat quality of trumpeter hornbills continually decreased in the Kalomo district but improved in KNP; (3) Kalomo district has suffered rapid environmental degradation due to an imbalance between economic development and environmental conservation, while strict enforcement in KNP has preserved ecosystems. The findings underscore the importance of integrated and inclusive land-use planning and natural resource governance for maintaining and enhancing ecosystem services in Zambia. To progress towards landscape management that is both sustainable and equitable, aligning with the objectives of the Global Biodiversity Framework, it is proposed that a comprehensive approach be adopted in the region. This approach should encompass a more thorough consideration of local livelihood requirements, as well as the wider political-economic and social factors at play.

Environmental Services on the Public Green Open Space using Dpsir Approach: Study Case at Mataram City

The existence of public green open spaces provides a number of benefits for the community and the surrounding environment. This study aims to assess the environmental service function of public green spaces in Mataram City using several environmental analysis approaches. The research method used a quantitative descriptive approach with the research sample being Pagutan green space and Udayana green space. The research time was conducted from June to July 2023 with research instruments namely interviews, and observations. Some of the methods used are spatial analysis, ecosystem service analysis, and DPSIR analysis. Based on the DPSIR approach, the service function in public green spaces is triggered (Drivers) by the existence of several regulations that require urban areas to have 30% of their area used as green spaces. Pressures faced by public green spaces include an increase in the number of vehicles and population every year. Existing conditions (States) show differences in the value of the measurement of noise, temperature and air quality parameters in RTH Udayana and RTH Pagutan. The impact felt by the presence of RTH shows that some environmental parameters for noise range from 12.42-20.08 dB, temperature ranges from 0.83-1.07oC and air quality (TSP, PM10, SO2, CO, O3, Humidity) show a difference between RTH and non-RTH. Response to (drivers), (pressure), (states), and (impact) variables that have been formulated using SWOT analysis is to coordinate and cooperate all parties both government, private, and community related to planning, structuring and utilization of public green spaces, as well as regular monitoring to ensure the sustainability of environmental services produced by public green spaces.

Spatial analysis of cultural ecosystem services in Lublin: Perception of local residents and tourists

Motives: Cultural Ecosystem Services (CES) are perceived differently by local residents and tourists. Therefore, an understanding of spatial patterns in CES is important for urban planning.Aim: To determine whether residents and tourists differ in their perceptions of CES groups in Lublin, and whether these perceptions are influenced by gender, age, occupation, and frequency of visits.Results: The relative value of CES groups was ranked in the following descending order of importance: physical, social, cultural, inspirational, and spiritual activities by local residents (n = 138), and inspirational, cultural, spiritual, physical, and social activities by tourists (n = 134). The Wilcoxon test showed that the total and average number of the identified locations was higher among residents than tourists. The chi-square test revealed a difference between the CES categories identified by the local residents (x2 = 265.602, df = 5, p < 0.01) and tourists (x2 = 25.660, df = 5, p < 0.01).

Spatial and temporal changes in ecosystem services value and analysis of driving factors in the Yangtze River Delta Region

Abstract Based on land use classification data for the Yangtze River Delta region in 2000, 2015, and 2020, this study aims to explore the spatial and temporal evolution of ecosystem services value (ESV) in the region. By analyzing the land use structure and its dynamic changes, an ESV model is constructed. Furthermore, the study utilizes a geodetector to analyze the driving factors of ESV in the Yangtze River Delta region. The findings are as follows: (1) From 2000 to 2020, arable land was the predominant land use type in the Yangtze River Delta region. (2) The ESV in the region showed an upward trend followed by a decline from 2000 to 2020. Regulating services and supporting services have always been the core functions of ecosystem services in the region, with hydrological regulation contributing the most. (3) From a spatial perspective, there were significant differences in the spatial distribution of AESV (aggregated ecosystem services value) in the Yangtze River Delta region. The AESV changes in various cities within the region were evident, with a decreasing trend observed in most cities. (4) The sensitivity index of each land use type was less than 1, with forest land exhibiting the highest sensitivity and having the greatest impact on ESV. (5) Geodetector analysis revealed that the AESV in the Yangtze River Delta region is influenced by a combination of regional natural factors, economic factors, and social factors, and the interaction among different driving forces significantly enhances the spatial heterogeneity of AESV in the region.

Role of Local Stakeholders in Preserving Urban Lake Ecosystem Services

The high vulnerability to environmental degradation in urban lakes requires serious management efforts. Involvement of various stakeholder components in urban lake management is urgently needed, including local stakeholders. This study aimed to see the influence of the role of local stakeholders (community and government) in preserving urban lake ecosystem services. Three lakes in Jakarta Indonesia with different surrounding landscape characteristics – Situ Babakan Lake (SBL), Srengseng Urban Forest Lake (SUFL), and South Sunter Lake (SSL) – were selected to see the local stakeholder's role in various ecosystem services such as fish provision, water quality regulation, local cultural preservation, and tree biodiversity support. Ecosystem services analysis was measured using various methods such as fish production potential, water quality index, total local cultural elements, and the Shannon-Wiener index. Meanwhile, observations of local community traditions and lifestyles, as well as interviews were used to measure stakeholder’s influence on ecosystem services. The analysis shows that SBL, a lake surrounded by a cultural preservation area, had the best ecosystem service conditions among other locations. Fish provisioning services in SBL had the highest production potential (2.99 tons/yr), followed by SSL (1.33 tons/yr) and SUFL (0.17 tons/yr). The highest value of water quality regulating was also found in SBL (53.6), followed by SUFL (48) and SSL (44.8). SBL also preserved the most cultural elements (10 from 12), followed by SUFL (7 from 12) and SSL (6 from 12). Tree biodiversity index had varied values in SBL (4.23), SUFL (2.81), and SSL (1.85). Cultural preserved area triggers local stakeholders to manage the area intensively because of the high importance in social, environmental, and economic value. However, government-dominated management shows the unpreparedness of research locations in adopting community-based tourism.

Novel method for ecosystem services assessment and analysis of road-effect zones

To explore the cumulative ecological effects of roads in ecologically fragile areas, the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) tool was applied to assess the spatiotemporal changes in habitat quality, water yield, and soil erosion in road-effect zones of the Western Sichuan Plateau, China. Then, generalized estimating equations were formulated to analyze the impact of synergies among road attributes, climate, topography, land cover, and other factors on ecosystem service changes. The results showed that the habitat quality within the road-effect zones was mostly affected by road grade and structure, and water yield and soil erosion were attributed to the factors of road structure, rainfall, and topography. Roadbed sections had the greatest negative impact on ecosystem services, followed by bridge sections and tunnel sections. Overall, the results of this study address habitat encroachment and soil and water loss in ecologically fragile areas, contributing to knowledge on green infrastructure planning.

Bidecadal analysis of urbanization effects and ecosystem services at Haldwani, Western Himalayas, India

The study addresses the impact of urbanization on fragile ecosystems such as the Western Himalayas. One rapidly growing city in the Himalayan region is Haldwani, Uttarakhand, which has been subject to human encroachment and subsequent loss of ecosystem services. Several environmental parameters such as Nighttime light (NTL), Land Surface Temperatures (LSTs), Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD), and forest cover are used in this study based on satellite imagery to allow a bidecadal comparison (between 2000 and 2020) of the status of these parameters for the city based on these parameters shows a decline in ecosystem services. Significant statistical differences for LSTs and AOD can be found in the bidecadal comparison. Furthermore, a strong negative effect was found between LST-NDVI (r = −0.69) and NTL-NDVI (r = −0.58) in earlier and last decade intervals. In addition, long-term multi-spectral satellite imagery also shows a decline in tree cover in the reserved forest. Therefore, focusing on ecosystem services related to tree cover in reserved forest areas, particularly in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) must be part of a broader action plan to address these issues to protect fragile Himalayan ecosystems further.

A 20-year shift in China's sewage sludge heavy metals and its feasibility of nutrient recovery in land use

Recycling resources from wastewater is even more important for developing a more sustainable society. Disposing sewage sludge, which accumulates most pollutants and resources in sewage, is the main challenge in wastewater pollution control and resource utilization. Heavy metals (HMs) are the greatest constraint limiting the application of sewage sludge to land as a sustainable use of this material. We conducted a meta-analysis of the concentrations of HMs in Chinese sewage sludge by combining data from studies published from 2000 to 2019 (N = 8477). Over this period, the reported concentrations of HMs in sewage sludge declined in three stages (a fluctuating stage, a slight decrease stage, and a rapid and stable decrease stage). The results revealed that economic development and environmental policy implementation were the main factors mitigating HM pollution in sewage sludge in China. Moreover, if environmental regulations were strengthened and HM pollution-mitigation strategies were made consistent, such that the proportion of sewage sludge applied to land in China could be increased from 18.6% to 48.0% (the proportion applied to land in the United States), the ecosystem services analysis showed that huge ecological–economic benefits could be realized (3.1 billion Chinese Yuan) and the use of fertilizers could be substantially reduced (the use of nitrogen fertilizers by 8.5% and the use of phosphate fertilizers by 18.1%). This review shows that China should formulate a unified policy and interdepartmental committee for sustainable application of sewage sludge to land and wastewater resource recycling management.

Spatiotemporal ecosystem services: Response to structural changes (A case study in Lahijan, Iran).

Structure and function are the inherent characteristics of each ecosystem providing various services such as clean air, extreme weather mitigation, and mental and physical well-being. The objective of this study is to develop a unified model combining Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services, ecological network (EN), and correlation analysis to investigate changes in ecosystem structure, function, and process. In this context, carbon sequestration, soil reduction, and flood risk mitigation were quantified from 2000 to 2020 and predicted for 2040 using the cellular automata and Markov chain (CA-Markov) model. Finally, correlation analysis was used to analyze the relationship over time between the land use (LU) classes and the components of the forest EN that provide and exchange desired ecosystem services (ESs). Thus, the changes in LU in the region in recent years led to significant reduction of ESs in the region as well as changes in the interaction between services. These changes, on the one hand, reduced the area of cores and increased isolated forest patches and, on the other hand, led to the horizontal expansion of cities and agricultural lands. If this trend continues, the decline in services provided by the ecosystem will persist into the future. Consequently, it can be said that structural changes in the ecosystem can lead to changes in the ESs. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2024;20:1099-1111. © 2023 SETAC.

Profit-efficiency analysis of forest ecosystem services in the southeastern US

Technical, allocative, and profit efficiency of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris. Mill) forests in the southeastern United States, producing ecosystem services such as timber, tree biodiversity, water, and carbon sequestration, were estimated. This study employed a non-parametric two-stage approach involving data envelopment analysis (DEA) and robust linear regression. Utilizing data from the Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program spanning 1977–2015 and covering 2,282 forest plots, most longleaf pine forest plots were technically and profit inefficient in ecosystem service production. The inefficiency in profit appeared more attributable to allocative rather than technical inefficiency. Furthermore, the impact of various exogenous variables on inefficiency scores was assessed through robust linear regression. The findings suggested that forest disturbances under private ownership could reduce technical inefficiency. Surprisingly, contrary to stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) results, the robust regression model, considering geographical factors, disturbance, ownership, management, and time in the presence of outliers/influential observations, indicated that disturbances often increased technical inefficiency. Therefore, forest management strategies aiming to mimic or replicate the effects of forest disturbances might compromise the efficiency of ecosystem service provision.

Integration of Ecosystem Services and Habitats into the Biodiversity Atlas Austria

The Biodiversity Atlas Austria (“Biodiversitäts-Atlas Österreich”) is a data portal to explore Austria’s biodiversity. It is based on the open-source infrastructure of the Atlas of Living Australia (ALA) and was launched with support of the Living Atlas (LA) community in late 2019 by the Biodiversity Hub of the University of Continuing Education Krems funded by the Government of Lower Austria. At present, it stores more than 8.5 million species occurrence records from various data partners and institutions and is available in both English and German. The Atlas is running on two virtual machines with 4 TB storage and is hosting many of the ALA-developed tools and services such as collectory, biocache, biodiversity information explorer, regions, spatial portal, sensitive data service, lists, images, and dashboard. In the project “ÖKOLEITA” (2021-2023), two new tools were developed within the existing LA infrastructure and will be launched in late 2023 to allow users to deal with ecosystem services and habitat data. The “ecosys”-tool will allow management, visualization, and analysis of ecosystem services by uploading different (raster or vector) TIFF files containing mapped ecosystem services to the geoserver. Users will be able to inspect various ecosystem services at a specific geolocation or compare different geolocations or a transect on their respective ecosystem service potential. The ecosystem service values are presented on the one hand as pictograms, where the value is transformed into quintiles, orienting on the work by Schreder et al. (2018), and as bar chart showing the true values. The “habitat” tool will store and manage datasets of habitat mappings (shapefiles) and allow users to spatially explore those various habitat mappings on a map. Users will be able to search for specific habitats across all datasets or a specific one and get all occurrences of this habitat type returned. Through linkage to the biocache, a click on a specific area reveals the list of species found within that habitat recording, as well as all the species occurrences within that area stored in the database. A “habitat backbone” of the most used habitat classifications in Austria will allow dealing with habitat mappings that use different classifications. Both tools are integrated into the Living Atlases infrastructure and communicate with the other tools and services of the Biodiversity Atlas Austria (Fig. 1). They share a common administration back-end but have different front-ends, where the users can explore the ecosystem services and habitats spatially and in connection with species occurrence records and other contextual information.