Anaerobic Energy Systems Research Articles

Impairment of anaerobic capacity in adults with growth hormone deficiency.

The anaerobic energy system underpins the initiation of all physical activities, including those of daily living. GH supplementation improves sprinting in recreational athletes, a performance measure dependent on the anaerobic energy system. The physiological and functional link between GH and the anaerobic energy system is unknown. The objective was to investigate whether anaerobic capacity is impaired in adults with GH deficiency (GHD) and to assess its functional significance. This was a cross-sectional study. The participants were 13 adults with GHD and 13 age-, gender- and body mass index-matched normal subjects. Anaerobic power (watts) was assessed by the 30-second Wingate test, and aerobic capacity was assessed by the VO2max (L/min) test. The functional assessment comprised the stair-climb test, chair-stand test, and 7-day pedometry. Quality of life (QoL) was assessed by the QoL-AGHDA questionnaire. Lean body mass (LBM) was quantified by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Mean anaerobic power (5.8 ± 0.4 vs 7.1 ± 0.3 W · kg LBM(-1); P < .05) and VO2max were significantly lower in adults with GHD. The duration of the stair-climb test was longer (19.4 ± 0.7 vs 16.5 ± 0.7 s; P < .01) in adults with GHD and correlated negatively (R(2) = 0.7; P < .0001) with mean anaerobic power. The mean number of chair-stand repetitions and daily step counts were lower, and the QoL-AGHDA score was higher in adults with GHD (P < .05). In a multiple regression analysis, age, gender, LBM, and GH status were significant predictors of mean anaerobic power. Mean anaerobic power significantly predicted stair-climb performance (P < .01) and QoL (P < .05). Anaerobic capacity is subnormal, and it independently predicts stair-climbing capacity and QoL in adults with GHD. We conclude that GH regulates anaerobic capacity, which determines QoL and selective aspects of physical function.

Prediction of aerobic and anaerobic capacities of elite cyclists from changes in lactate during isocapnic buffering phase.

This study predicted aerobic and anaerobic capacities using relative changes of arterial blood lactate during the isocapnic buffering phase (relative [La]ISBP). Fourteen male professional cyclists (sprint-trained [n = 6] and endurance [n = 8]) performed 2 exercise sessions to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer; 1 incremental standard test to determine the isocapnic buffering phase, buffering capacities, and relative [La]ISBP and 1 supramaximal exercise test to determine maximal accumulated oxygen deficit (MAOD). The time between Lactate threshold (LT) and respiratory compensatory threshold (RCT) was considered to be the isocapnic buffering phase. Total buffering capacity was calculated as Δ[La]·ΔpH. Bicarbonate buffering was calculated as Δ[HCO3]·ΔpH, and the difference between -Δ[La]·ΔpH and Δ[HCO3]·ΔpH was considered as nonbicarbonate buffering. The lactate concentration for LT (p ≤ 0.05) and RCT (p ≤ 0.05), and relative [La]ISBP (p < 0.01) were significantly lower for endurance cyclists than for sprint-trained cyclists. A significant difference was found for bicarbonate buffering capacity between groups (p < 0.01). A significant correlation was found between relative [La]ISBP with (Equation is included in full-text article.)(r = -0.71, p ≤ 0.05) and MAOD (r = 0.73, p < 0.01). Relative [La]ISBP was useful for predicting aerobic power (R = 51%) and anaerobic capacity (R = 53%). These results demonstrated that relative [La]ISBP is an important variable in intermediary metabolism and in addition to (Equation is included in full-text article.)and LT is recommended for better evaluation of performance of athletes who show nearly equal contributions from the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems during exercise.

Management of metabolic resources for a 20-km cycling time-trial using different types of pacing

Pacing is crucial for improving human performance in time-trial physical exercise. This study examined the effect of different types of pacing (self pace, variable pace and even pace) on the energy expended from the aerobic system and anaerobic system for a 20-km time-trial cycling exercise. In addition, the degree of homeostatic disturbance caused by each type of pacing was analysed to find out the effect of pacing on the human body. Furthermore, the relationship between the Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) and blood lactate concentration was investigated, and associated to these types of pacing. Here, in this study, we showed that even pace was aerobic energy system dependent, and variable pace was anaerobic energy system dependent. Also, the Hazard Score index demonstrated that the variable pace time-trial caused the greatest homeostatic disturbance and there was a positive relationship between RPE and blood lactate concentration.

The impact of exercises on the anaerobic energy system on some enzymes, and the defense skills of volleyball

The impact of exercises on the anaerobic energy system on some enzymes, and the defense skills of volleyball

Changes in metabolic and muscle damage indicators following a single bout of jump training on stair versus at level

We hypothesized that stair-jump exercise would induce less muscle damage and greater acute metabolic responses than level-jumps. Trained males executed 100 unilateral jumps on stairs with one leg, and at level with the other leg, with two weeks hiatus. Maximal isometric voluntary torque (MVC) and rate of torque development (RTD)in the quadriceps, and unilateral vertical jump height (VJ) were determined in the trained leg at pre-exercise,immediately at post- (IP), 24 h and 48 h after exercise. Serum creatine kinase (CK) level and delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) were evaluated at pre-exercise, 24 h and 48 h. Acute lactate and heart rate responses were also measured. Lactate and heart rate at IP increased similarly under the two conditions. CK was elevated and MVC was depressed while RTD and VJ remained unchanged at 24 h in both types of training. MVC recovered at 48 h only after stair-jump exercise. DOMS developed only after level-jumps. Except DOMS, no effects of condition were found in any other variables. We conclude that vigorous stair-jump exercise highly stresses the aerobic and the anaerobic energy system, and it preserves power and rapid torque generating ability 24 h after exercise. Stair-jump could be one alternative exercise to prevent muscle soreness.

Physiological Response, Time–Motion Characteristics, and Reproducibility of Various Speed-Endurance Drills in Elite Youth Soccer Players: Small-Sided Games Versus Generic Running

To quantify the physiological responses, time-motion characteristics, and reproducibility of various speed-endurance-production (SEP) and speed-endurance-maintenance (SEM) drills. Sixteen elite male youth soccer players completed 4 drills: SEP 1 v 1 small-sided game (SSG), SEP running drill, SEM 2 v 2 SSG, and SEM running drill. Heart-rate response, blood lactate concentration, subjective rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and time-motion characteristics were recorded for each drill. The SEP and SEM running drills elicited greater (P < .05) heart-rate responses, blood lactate concentrations, and RPE than the respective SSGs (ES 1.1-1.4 and 1.0-3.2). Players covered less (P < .01) total distance and high-intensity distance in the SEP and SEM SSGs than in the respective running drills (ES 6.0-22.1 and 3.0-18.4). Greater distances (P < .01) were covered in high to maximum acceleration/deceleration bands during the SEP and SEM SSGs than the respective running drills (ES 2.6-4.6 and 2.3-4.8). The SEP SSG and generic running protocols produced greater (P < .05) blood lactate concentrations than the respective SEM protocols (ES 1.2-1.7). Small to moderate test-retest variability was observed for heart-rate response (CV 0.9-1.9%), RPE (CV 2.9-5.7%), and blood lactate concentration (CV 9.9-14.4%); moderate to large test-retest variability was observed for high-intensity-running parameters (CV > 11.3%) and the majority of accelerations/deceleration distances (CV > 9.8%) for each drill. The data demonstrate the potential to tax the anaerobic energy system to different extents using speed-endurance SSGs and that SSGs elicit greater acceleration/ deceleration load than generic running drills.

A Bibliographic Review of Medicine and Science Research in DanceSport

DanceSport is the competitive form of ballroom dancing, and even though it has more participants worldwide than ballet and modern dance, there is less peer-reviewed research. A review was conducted to identify all relevant literature to help researchers and clinicians gain an enhanced understanding of dancesport. Eight databases were searched, with 34 articles found in topics including participation motives, psychology, exercise physiology, fitness training, injuries and injury prevention, biomechanics, menstrual dysfunction, and substance use. Our results indicate that researchers have been inconsistently recording and reporting anthropometric and dancesport data; for example, 31 studies separated participants by gender, 21 included the competition classification of dancers, 19 reported which style of dancesport participants competed in, and 13 described the participants as a dance couple. Common injuries affected the neck, shoulder, spine, knee, lower leg, and foot. Dancesport is in the very heavy to extremely heavy category in energy expenditure (mean heart rate: male 175.2 ± 10.7, female 178.6 ± 8.6 bpm) and utilizes both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. Alpha-beta and heart rate variability intervention techniques are reported to successfully enhance performance in dancers. Dancesport participants also appear less likely to smoke cigarettes, but have little knowledge about anti-doping rules. During events, professionals danced farther (30 m) and faster (0.3 m/sec) than junior dancers. Female competitors were more likely to be eumenorrheic. Dancesport is a physically and mentally demanding competitive sport, but there is a need to standardize measurements in future studies to allow comparison.

Aging has greater impact on anaerobic versus aerobic power in trained masters athletes

This study measured the relative rates of change of the three human energy systems across a 30-year age range. A cross-section of highly trained masters cyclists (n = 156 males and 17 females; 35–64 years) were tested for maximal cycling performance. There were 50 (29%) track sprint cyclists and the remaining (71%) were predominantly road cycling specialists. A 10 s peak power test measured anaerobic power, a 30 s test measured anaerobic capacity, and a progressive test to volitional fatigue was used to determine peak aerobic power. Participants’ exercise patterns were recorded using a physical activity recall questionnaire. Linear regression showed significant changes in anaerobic performance with aging. Peak anaerobic power (W · kg−1) declined at a rate (mean ± SEE) of 8.1 ± 4.1% per decade (P < 0.0001) and anaerobic capacity (kJ · kg−1) declined at 8.0 ± 3.3% per decade (P < 0.0001). Peak aerobic power [W · kg−1] did not change significantly with age [−1.8 ± 1.5% per decade (P = 0.218)]. This cross-sectional study showed performance of the two anaerobic energy systems declined significantly across the age spectrum with no change in aerobic capacity.

The efficacy of flavonoid antioxidant from chocolate: bean extract: prevention of myocyte damage caused by reperfusion injury in predominantly anaerobic sports.

Background : Use of predominantly anaerobic energy systems such as that seen in 800-meter athlete runners disrupts mitochondrial function as an energy source. Furthermore, it produces free radical substances and causes myocyte damage. Malondialdehyde (MDA) plasma concentrations correlate with free radical levels and are therefore predictive of cell damage. To analyse the effect of flavonoid antioxidant from chocolate bean extract for prevention of lipid peroxidation of myocyte membranes caused by free radical substances in athletes partaking in predominantly anaerobic sports. The study of population consisted of 16 junior athletes who compete in 800-meter races. This was a randomized experimental study. Subjects were divided into two groups, chocolate bean extracts and placebo groups, and then practiced regularly for 14 days. All subjects were assessed on day 15. RESULTS were analysed statistically using paired t test, ANOVA and Duncan tests. Concentrations of MDA were reduced in flavonoid group. Flavonoid antioxidant from chocolate bean extract may prevent myocyte damage was caused by reperfusion injury.

Metabolic Limitations of Performance and Fatigue in Football

Football participation requires considerable utilization of both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems to match the high energetic demands of the sport. The consequent stresses imposed on the physiological and metabolic systems carries players to the threshold of exhaustion during match-play, from which they are required to recover in preparation for the subsequent game. A high number of players experience fatigue during the high-intensity bouts and a consequent decline in their performance towards the end of the game is a likely outcome during match-play. The current review aims to establish the current understanding that relates to metabolic limitations of performance and the associated mechanisms for the onset of fatigue that may be instrumental in further development of evidence-based nutritional and training interventions in this event.

Anaerobic Capacity as a Determinant of Performance in Sprint Skiing

As cross-country sprint competitions rely on maximal-effort durations of ∼3 min, a significant anaerobic energy contribution is expected. Anaerobic energy production during supramaximal exercise has been estimated in different sports from the accumulated oxygen deficit (ΣO₂ deficit) but, to date, not in cross-country skiing. Therefore, this study investigated the relative contribution of the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems to performance in ski skating sprint time trials using V1 and V2 techniques. Twelve elite senior male cross-country skiers participated in the study (24 ± 3 yr, 183 ± 5 cm, 79 ± 7 kg, V˙O(2max) = 72 ± 3 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹ or 5.7 ± 0.5 L·min⁻¹). Three submaximal trials (4°-6°), one V˙O(2max) test (8°), and one performance test (7°, 600 m) were performed both in the V1 and in the V2 ski skating technique on a roller ski treadmill. ΣO₂ deficit was ∼60 mL·kg⁻¹ and contributed to ∼26% of the total energy release during the ∼170-s time trials. Low to moderate correlations (r = 0.09-0.51) were found between O₂ cost of skiing, fractional utilization of V˙O(2peak), fractional utilization, and 600-m time. However, a moderate to strong correlation was found between ΣO₂ deficit and 600-m time in both the V1 (r = -0.75) and the V2 tests (r = -0.64) (both P < 0.05). No significant differences were found between techniques according to 600-m time or physiological responses. The contribution from anaerobic energy systems was ∼26% and seemed independent of technique. In a group of elite skiers, the difference in roller ski treadmill sprint performance is more related to differences in anaerobic capacity than maximal aerobic power and O₂ cost.

Exercício aeróbio: Aspectos bioenergéticos, ajustes fisiológicos, fadiga e índices de desempenho

The objective of this study was to present relevant updated information regarding the physiological determinants of aerobic training and performance. In contrast to common concepts, the aerobic metabolism rapidly responds to energy requirements, with the anaerobic and aerobic energy systems equally contributing to total energy production during maximal exercise lasting about 75 s. However, in the case of longer exercise duration the possible mechanisms of fatigue related to anaerobic metabolism are still the main determinants of exercise tolerance. Prolonged exercise (more than one hour) can be limited by several factors such as substrate depletion, water and electrolyte disturbance, or problems related to thermoregulation leading to an increase in body temperature. The most important variables of endurance performance have been organized into a model that integrates factors such as maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), blood lactate thresholds, and muscle efficiency. For highly trained athletes, in addition to a high VO2max, success in endurance events also requires the ability to exercise for prolonged periods at a high percentage of VO2max, as well as to efficiently convert the energy produced into muscle work. Depending on the duration of the aerobic event, the training sessions should be aimed at improving VO2max, anaerobic lactate capacity and acidosis tolerance in the case of short-lasting events and aerobic capacity for events of intermediate duration, and at increasing muscle glycogen content and fat utilization in the case of long-lasting events.

Blood lactate levels support classification of the 300 m shuttle run as an anaerobic capacity field test

Purpose: The 300m shuttle run test developed by Moore and Murphy has the potential to be a widely used anaerobic capacity field test, particularly in team sports, but whether this test challenges the anaerobic energy systems has recently been questioned. Also, there is little published data with which to evaluate performance levels from this test. Therefore the aim of this study was to determine blood lactate levels following the 300m shuttle run in four groups of participants: NRL (n=25) and NYC (n=33) rugby league players, and male (n=29) and female (n=30) PE students.

Anaerobic and Aerobic Energy System Contribution to 400-m Flat and 400-m Hurdles Track Running

The present study was designed to determine the aerobic and anaerobic energy contributions to 400-m Flat (400 mF) and 400-m hurdles (400 mH) using the accumulated oxygen deficit method. Six nationally ranked athletes, specializing in 400 mH and familiar with 400 mF volunteered to participate in this study. All the participants performed 3 track-running sessions. The first session determine the maximal oxygen uptake and maximal aerobic speed using lightweight ambulatory respiratory gas exchange measurements (o2000, Medical Graphics). The second and third tests consist of a 400 mF and a 400 mH performed on the track in a randomized counterbalanced order. Accumulated oxygen deficit determined during the 400 mF was significantly higher than that determined during the 400 mH (65.0 +/- 10.0 mlxkg vs. 44.1 +/- 7.4 mlxkg, p < 0.05). Thus, the aerobic contribution calculated was significantly higher during the 400 mH compared to during the 400 mF (43.0 +/- 2.0 vs. 37.4 +/- 2.7%, p < 0.05, respectively). These results strongly suggest that the aerobic contribution is greater during a 400 mH compared to during a 400 mF. Thus, this study provides a scientific rationale behind the coaches' practice and contributes to a better understanding of the differences between 400 mF and 400 mH. Then, the coaches must propose different training programs for both 400 mF and 400 mH runners.

Physiological Demands of an Intermittent Futsal-Oriented High-Intensity Test

The aim of this study was to provide evidence for specific physiological demands of a futsal time-motion analysis devised progressive and intermittent shuttle-running test (futsal intermittent endurance test [FIET]). Eighteen full-time professional futsal players (age 20.6 +/- 3.1 years, body mass 71.6 +/- 8.5 kg, height 175 +/- 7.9 cm) volunteered to participate in this study. In a random order and on separate days, they performed the FIET and a treadmill test (TM) to assess aerobic fitness. Physiological demands were examined by monitoring exercise heart rates (HRs), O2, and blood-lactate concentration (BLac) during FIET and TM conditions. During the FIET, players covered 1,464 +/- 136 m attaining a mean speed at exhaustion of 16.5 +/- 0.6 km h. The mean FIET duration was of 13.24 +/- 1.13 minutes. Peak O2, HR, and BLac were 95 +/- 6.4, 99 +/- 2, and 108 +/- 25% of treadmill O2max, HRmax, and BLac, respectively. Large correlations were found between speed at ventilatory threshold and maximal speed at O2max with FIET performance (r = 0.60 and 0.61, p < 0.01, respectively). Peak O2 during the FIET was significantly lower than O2max. Although there was no mean difference between peak exercise HR in the TM and FIET conditions, significant intraindividual bias was evident. This study showed that FIET heavily stresses both the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems to a level that is similar to what was reported in futsal game play. Coaches may use the FIET to examine futsal players' ability to cope with intermittent high-intensity exercise. It is suggested that the highest HR found during the FIET should be regarded as peak HR and not as individual HRmax.

Video Analysis of Classical Ballet Performance

Video analysis of classical ballet to date has been largely limited to examining the artistic elements of choreography. The aim this study was to employ a method of video analysis to describe the physiological demands of classical ballet performance and to examine differences between artists, soloists, and principal dancers. Forty-eight performances [male = 24, female = 24; artists (corps de ballet) = 16, soloists =16, principals =16] were analyzed in four fields: work intensity, body movement, partner work, and number of transitory movements occurring per minute. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences between ranks in two intensity bands: time at rest (p &lt; 0.05) and time performing at moderate intensity (p &lt; 0.05), with soloists and principals resting for 75.2 ± 15.1% and 53 ± 24.1% of the total performance, respectively (p &lt; 0.05). Principals also spent a significantly greater percentage of time at moderate intensity than both soloists and artists (p &lt; 0.05). Significant differences between males and females (p &lt; 0.05) were seen in the number of lifting and supporting movements performed. It was concluded that classical ballet is an intermittent form of exercise, utilizing both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems, a finding that supports previous studies. The demands of the performances analyzed varied according to role. Therefore, it was also concluded that video analysis can help provide a basis for rank-specific supplemental training.

Use of Aggregate Fitness Indicators to Predict Transition into the National Hockey League

Athletes (n = 345) invited to the annual combine conducted by the National Hockey League (NHL) prior to the entry draft were administered tests to measure upper body strength, lower body power, aerobic and anaerobic energy systems, and body composition. Their common variance was extracted using factor analysis from which an overall composite index was derived. A score on this index in the 90th percentile is associated with 72% and 60% probability of playing in the NHL within 4 years after the draft for defensemen and forwards, respectively. These findings demonstrate that by taking into account the shared variance on standard tests of fitness, it is possible to use the athlete's results to gauge his potential for playing in the NHL.

Aerobic exercise: bioenergetics, physiologicaladjustments, fatigue and performance indices

The objective of this study was to present relevant updated information regarding the physiological determinants of aerobic training and performance. In contrast to common concepts, the aerobic metabolism rapidly responds to energy requirements, with the anaerobic and aerobic energy systems equally contributing to total energy production during maximal exercise lasting about 75 s. However, in the case of longer exercise duration the possible mechanisms of fatigue related to anaerobic metabolism are still the main determinants of exercise tolerance. Prolonged exercise (more than one hour) can be limited by several factors such as substrate depletion, water and electrolyte disturbance, or problems related to thermoregulation leading to an increase in body temperature. The most important variables of endurance performance have been organized into a model that integrates factors such as maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), blood lactate thresholds, and muscle efficiency. For highly trained athletes, in addition to a high VO2max, success in endurance events also requires the ability to exercise for prolonged periods at a high percentage of VO2max, as well as to efficiently convert the energy produced into muscle work. Depending on the duration of the aerobic event, the training sessions should be aimed at improving VO2max, anaerobic lactate capacity and acidosis tolerance in the case of short-lasting events and aerobic capacity for events of intermediate duration, and at increasing muscle glycogen content and fat utilization in the case of long-lasting events.

Exercise intensity during an 8-day mountain bike marathon race

The purpose of this descriptive study was to examine the exercise intensity of a mountain bike (MTB) marathon race lasting 8 days. Seven amateur MTBers (age 33.6 +/- 3.0 years, height 1.67 +/- 0.5 m, body mass 58.4 +/- 9.9 kg) completing the Transalp Challenge 2004 were involved in the study. Before the race subjects completed a maximal incremental cycling test to determine four intensity zones based on the heart rate (HR) corresponding to fixed blood lactate thresholds (2, 4 and 6 mmol/L). The exercise intensity during the Transalp Challenge 2004 was measured by using HR short telemetry systems. Mean HR was 85.4% of maximal HR during the race or 79.2% of laboratory determined maximum. Thirty-six percent of total race time was spent in the high and very-high intensity zones. The study showed that this MTB stage race is physiologically very demanding, heavily involving both the aerobic and anaerobic energy system.

Relationships Between Blood Lactate Clearance and Measures of Aerobic Capacity in Elite Women's Ice Hockey

Successful performance in ice hockey relies on a combination of anaerobic and aerobic energy systems. The relationships between blood lactate and indirect measures of aerobic capacity have not been investigated in elite female ice hockey players. PURPOSE: To determine relationships between blood lactate clearance, the difference between lactate immediately following an on-ice Repeat Sprint Skate Test (RSS) (Bracko & George, 2001) and lactate after 4-6 mins recovery, and other measures of aerobic capacity in elite female ice hockey players. METHODS: Players on the University of Alberta women's ice hockey team (n=80, 21.1±2.6 yrs) completed pre-season tests of aerobic fitness (Leger test [Leger, 1988]) (off-ice) and RSS. Blood lactate clearance, drop-off times on RSS (difference between first and third repeat), heart rate drop-offs (post-RSS HR - recovery HR differences), and Leger test estimates of VO2max were used as proxies for aerobic capacity. Bivariate Pearson correlations were run (SPSS Mac Version 10.0), with a significance level set a priori at p<0.05. RESULTS: No significant relationships were found between lactate clearance and any aerobic measures (r= −.034 to .113, p>0.10). However, higher VO2max estimates from the Leger test were significantly related to better scores for on-ice measures of aerobic capacity (RSS drop-off, r=-.460, -.490, p=.000; HR drop-off; r=.293, p =.017). CONCLUSIONS: Lactate clearance is not related to on and off-ice measures of aerobic capacity in elite female hockey players; however, high predicted VO2max is correlated to better drop-off time and HR recovery after sprint skating.