Amplitude Variation With Offset Anomalies Research Articles

AVO-Friendly Velocity Analysis Based on the High-Resolution PCA-Weighted Semblance

Velocity analysis using the semblance spectrum can provide an effective velocity model for advanced seismic imaging technology, in which the picking accuracy of velocity analysis is significantly affected by the resolution of the semblance spectrum. However, the peak broadening of the conventional semblance spectrum leads to picking uncertainty, and it cannot deal with the amplitude-variation-with-offset (AVO) phenomenon. The well-known AB semblance can process the AVO anomalies, but it has a lower resolution compared with conventional semblance. To improve the resolution of the AB semblance spectrum, we propose a new weighted AB semblance based on principal component analysis (PCA). The principal components or eigenvalues of seismic events are highly sensitive to the components with spatial coherence. Thus, we utilized the principal components of the normal moveout (NMO)-corrected seismic events with different scanning velocities to construct a weighting function. The new function not only has a high resolution for velocity scanning, but it is also a friendly method for the AVO phenomenon. Numerical experiments with the synthetic and field seismic data sets proved that the new method significantly improves resolution and can provide more accurate picked velocities compared with conventional methods.

High-resolution seismic velocity analysis by sign-based weighted semblance

Building an accurate velocity model plays a vital role in routine seismic imaging workflows. Normal-moveout (NMO)-based seismic velocity analysis is a popular method for making the velocity models. However, traditional velocity analysis methodologies are not generally capable of handling amplitude variations across moveout curves, specifically polarity reversals caused by amplitude-variation-with-offset (AVO) anomalies. I have developed an NMO-based velocity analysis approach that circumvents this shortcoming by modifying the conventional semblance (CS) function to include polarity and amplitude correction terms computed using correlation coefficients of seismic traces in the velocity analysis scanning window with a reference trace. Thus, the proposed method workflow is suitable for any class of AVO effects. The approach is evaluated with four synthetic data examples of different conditions and field data consisting of a common-midpoint gather. Lateral resolution enhancement using the proposed method workflow is evaluated by comparison between the results from the workflow and the results obtained by the application of CS and three semblance-based velocity analysis algorithms developed to circumvent the challenges associated with amplitude variations across moveout curves, caused by seismic attenuation and class II AVO anomalies. According to the obtained results, the proposed method is superior to all of the presented workflows in handling such anomalies.

Machine learning derived AVO analysis on marine 3D seismic data over gas reservoirs near South Korea

Amplitude variation with offset (AVO) analysis has become a crucial step in determining gas well locations. However, large amounts of time and effort are required to confirm AVO anomalies, and interpretations can be inconsistent. To avoid the need for the long processes involved in conventional manual analysis, we developed an automatic AVO analysis method for common midpoint (CMP) gathers through using machine learning (ML) with a convolutional neural network (CNN). To deal with complicated seismic data, the network was constructed based on VGG16 network architecture, which includes 16 layers. The resulting CNN-based algorithm was applied to two sets of three-dimensional (3D) seismic data acquired off the east coast of South Korea. One dataset, which was obtained over gas reservoirs and confirmed to show multiple AVO class III anomalies by comparison with geophysical well logging data, was used for training and evaluation of the proposed CNN-based algorithm. The resulting trained model was tested using the second dataset, which was obtained over an area near the gas reservoirs with a different depositional environment. To demonstrate the applicability of the model to raw and final migrated CMP gathers, AVO class III anomalies predicted by the ML-derived analysis were confirmed by manual AVO analysis of the test data.

Amplitude variation with offset-friendly bootstrapped differential semblance

Spectral noise, low resolution, and attenuation of semblance peaks due to amplitude variation with offset (AVO) anomalies hamper the reliability of velocity analysis in the semblance spectrum for seismic data processing. Increasing resolution and reducing noise while accounting for AVO has posed a challenge in various semblance schemes due to a trade-off in resolution and AVO detectability. A new semblance scheme is introduced that aims to remove this trade-off. The new scheme uses the concepts of bootstrapped differential semblance with trend-based AB semblance. Results indicate that the new scheme indeed increases spectral resolution, reduces noise, and accounts for AVO anomalies. These improvements facilitate velocity control for automatic and manual picking methods and, hence, provide a means for more reliable apparent velocity models.

Determination of subsurface rock properties from AVO analysis in Konga oil field of the Niger Delta, Southeastern Nigeria

Amplitude variation with offset (AVO) analysis was carried out on Konga oil field, an onshore oil field in the Niger Delta, Southeastern Nigeria. The study consisted of forward modeling from rock parameters measured from well logs and AVO analysis of events on pre-stack time migrated 3D seismic gathers. Forward modeling predicted specific AVO behaviour of anomalous reservoir sands in the field. Density, compressional and shear wave velocity logs, combined with a wavelet extracted from recorded seismic gathers were used to generate synthetic seismic gathers and Gassmann fluid substitution models. These synthetics supported key observations made of the AVO response in the field data. AVO attributes (intercept and gradient) were derived from analysis of common depth point (CDP) gathers obtained from a 3D pre-stack seismic survey. The attributes were cross-plotted to establish trends against which anomalous amplitude behaviour were identified. Reflections related to shales and brine sands exhibit a relatively small range of orientations creating a dominant “background trend” against which anomalous events related to hydrocarbon-saturated reservoirs show clear deviations. On the basis of crossplot analyses (reflectivity versus offset/angle and intercept versus gradient) and modeled acoustic impedance, Class 1 type AVO anomalies observed are associated with non-hydrocarbon bearing clastic rocks that are most probably brine saturated in the field. Evidence from these results show that drilling in this field in search of hydrocarbon reservoirs poses a risky venture.

Success in exploring for reliable, robust Paleocene traps west of Shetland

AbstractThis paper incorporates the results of recent exploration wells to provide a re-evaluation and re-validation of earlier publications by the author.Following the discovery of the Foinaven and Schiehallion fields in the early 1990s, exploration success for Paleocene targets outside the Quadrant 204 area of the Faroe–Shetland Basin was initially rather limited. However, renewed interest in the last 10 years has seen 12 Paleocene exploration wells drilled, of which 9 have encountered notable hydrocarbons.Since 1972, 151 exploration wells have been drilled west of Shetland with 79 wells (52%) specifically positioned on Paleocene prospects which resulted in 23 discoveries. Analysis of the 56 failed Paleocene wells shows that around 80% were drilled on either a poor or invalid trap, with the remaining 20% failing mainly due to either lack of or poor reservoir or poor top or lateral seal. Intriguingly, only 4 exploration wells have been exclusively positioned on Paleocene 4-way dip (or structural closures) structures, with all of these encountering hydrocarbons.Fifty-six Paleocene prospects contained a stratigraphic component with 15 notable successes, all of which are within the Upper Paleocene Vaila sequence. Ten key discoveries are located in the Judd Sub-basin or adjacent Westray High (Foinaven, SE Foinaven, SW Foinaven, Schiehallion, Loyal, Alligin, Cuillin, Arkle, Amos and Tornado). A further four are located in the Flett Sub-basin (Laggan, Tormore, Torridon, Laxford) and one is in the Foula Sub-basin (Glenlivet).Forty-six of the wells were positioned on an amplitude or amplitude-variation-with-offset (AVO) anomaly, of which 16 encountered notable hydrocarbons. Following post-mortem studies, the majority of the remaining 30 failed wells could be shown to have drilled poorly defined amplitude anomalies (various lithologies including igneous), AVO artefacts or spurious direct hydrocarbon indicator (DHIs) (which include multiples). Wells 204/17-1 and 204/18-1 are good examples of poorly interpreted AVO responses, in which high amplitudes are mainly present on the nears (low offset data) and there is significantly decreased amplitude on the highs (far offset data). Moreover, post-drill AVO analyses categorically show that both wells were indeed drilled on Class I AVO anomalies.Not surprisingly, in recent years all of the wells positioned on sound AVO anomalies have been successful in encountering hydrocarbons. Moreover, these wells show both a clear increase in amplitude with offset and a conformance with structure. Undoubtedly, the recent triumphs firmly demonstrate there is potential for maintaining a high success rate in future Paleocene exploration west of Shetland. Equally, the evaluation and use of proven examples of successful traps such as Foinaven, Schiehallion, Laggan, Tormore, Glenlivet and other analogues can add value to future exploration programmes.

High-resolution gathers by inverse Q filtering in the wavelet domain

We have developed and applied an inverse [Formula: see text] filter formulation using the continuous wavelet transform (CWT), which provides a natural domain for time-variant operations, such as compensation for propagation in attenuating and dispersive media. The well-known linear attenuation model, given as a function of time and frequency, was applied very efficiently over wavelet coefficients in the time-frequency domain to correct for amplitude and phase distortions, as necessary. The inverse CWT yields the recovered trace with a broader bandwidth. The process works on a trace-by-trace basis, making no distinction if the data is pre- or poststack. Our motivation was to develop gather conditioning tools to enhance prestack interpretation techniques such as amplitude variation with offset (AVO) analysis and inversion — a technique that is often compromised by tuning and other propagation related issues that degrade seismic resolution. Thus, we investigated the AVO fidelity of our filter and the sensitivity of the results to incorrect values of [Formula: see text], using real and synthetic data. Our synthetic data experiments clearly showed that AVO anomalies are recovered and preserved in a stable manner, even with values of [Formula: see text] off by 50% of its correct value. The application in time-migrated gathers shows a very natural increase in the vertical definition of the events, especially due to the partial elimination of the tuning effect. The benefits for imaging are also evidenced by comparing stacked sections before and after inverse [Formula: see text] filtering. The higher resolution of seismic sections leads to a better definition of smaller scale stratigraphic and structural features.

Interpretation of AVO anomalies

We investigate the effects of changes in rock and fluid properties on amplitude-variation-with-offset (AVO) responses. In the slope-intercept domain, reflections from wet sands and shales fall on or near a trend that we call the fluid line. Reflections from the top of sands containing gas or light hydrocarbons fall on a trend approximately parallel to the fluid line; reflections from the base of gas sands fall on a parallel trend on the opposing side of the fluid line. The polarity standard of the seismic data dictates whether these reflections from the top of hydrocarbon-bearing sands are below or above the fluid line. Typically, rock properties of sands and shales differ, and therefore reflections from sand/shale interfaces are also displaced from the fluid line. The distance of these trends from the fluid line depends upon the contrast of the ratio of P-wave velocity [Formula: see text] and S-wave velocity [Formula: see text]. This ratio is a function of pore-fluid compressibility and implies that distance from the fluid line increases with increasing compressibility. Reflections from wet sands are closer to the fluid line than hydrocarbon-related reflections. Porosity changes affect acoustic impedance but do not significantly impact the [Formula: see text] contrast. As a result, porosity changes move the AVO response along trends approximately parallel to the fluid line. These observations are useful for interpreting AVO anomalies in terms of fluids, lithology, and porosity.

The Halladale and Black Watch gas fields—drilling AVO anomalies along Victoria's Shipwreck Coast

The Halladale and Black Watch fields are adjacent fault-dependent gas accumulations at the Turonian Waarre Formation level situated in the eastern Otway Basin, about 4–5 km from shore in VIC/RL2(v). The two fields were first identified in 2002 when anomalous seismic amplitudes were observed on the tail-ends of several 90s-vintage 2D lines that extended into what was then vacant acreage. After being awarded the block as VIC/P37(v) Origin Energy Limited and its joint venture (JV) partner, Woodside Energy Limited, acquired a 211 km2 full-fold 3D seismic survey over the anomalous amplitudes in late 2003. Subsequent analysis of the seismic volume revealed two tilted fault blocks with strong amplitude variation with offset (AVO) anomalies in the Waarre A and Waarre C units that conformed to structure and appeared to shut off at the same depth. A similar AVO anomaly was also observed in the overlying Santonian Nullawarre Formation, raising the possibility that Halladale and/or Black Watch had leaked or were leaking. In early 2005, the VIC/P37(v) JV drilled two exploration wells targetting the key Waarre C reservoir on the eastern flank of Halladale and eastern crest of Black Watch. Both wells encountered live gas columns in the Waarre C but no GWCs were observed on logs and wireline pressure data indicated the two fields were not in pressure communication. A third well was then drilled down-dip of the Waarre C AVO shut off on the Halladale fault block to obtain a water gradient from the Waarre C. This well proved invaluable in determining the height of the gas columns in the Waarre C at both fields as it showed the gas-water contacts (GWCs) at Halladale (1,760 mSS) and Black Watch (1,770 mSS) were shallow to their respective AVO shut offs by about 20 m and 10 m respectively. Subsequent analysis of shear wave sonic data from the third well indicated there is a 17 m residual gas column at the base of the Halladale Field. This suggests Halladale either leaked slightly at some time in the past or is still leaking. A similar scenario may also occur at Black Watch. Given the close proximity of the two fields to the coast, development scenarios from onshore are now being considered.

Factors facilitating or limiting the use of AVO for coal-bed methane

There are similarities and differences in employing amplitude variation with offset (AVO) to explore for gas-sand reservoirs, as opposed to coal-bed methane (CBM) reservoirs. The main similarity is that large Poisson’s ratio contrasts, resulting in AVO gradient anomalies, are expected for both kinds of reservoirs. The main difference is that cleating and fracturing raise the Poisson’s ratio of a coal seam as it improves its reservoir potential for CBM, while gas always lowers the Poisson’s ratio of a sandstone reservoir. The top of gas sands usually has a negative AVO gradient, leading to a class one, two, or three anomaly depending on the impedance contrast with the overlying caprock. On the other hand, the top of a CBM reservoir has a positive AVO gradient, leading to a class four anomaly. Three environmental factors may limit the usage of AVO for CBM reservoirs: the smaller contrast in Poisson’s ratio between a CBM reservoir and its surrounding rock, variations in the caprock of a specific CBM reservoir, and the fact that CBM is not always free to collect at structurally high points in the reservoir. However, other factors work in favor of using AVO. The strikingly high reflection amplitude of coal improves signal/noise ratio and hence the reliability of AVO measurements. The relatively simple characteristics of AVO anomalies make them easy to interpret. Because faults are known to improve the quality of CBM reservoirs, faults accompanied by AVO anomalies would be especially convincing. A 3D-AVO example offered in this paper shows that AVO might be helpful to delineate methane-rich sweet spots within coal seams.

Coherence methods in mapping AVO anomalies and predicting P‐wave and S‐wave impedances

ABSTRACTFilters for migrated offset substacks are designed by partial coherence analysis to predict ‘normal’ amplitude variation with offset (AVO) in an anomaly free area. The same prediction filters generate localized prediction errors when applied in an AVO‐anomalous interval. These prediction errors are quantitatively related to the AVO gradient anomalies in a background that is related to the minimum AVO anomaly detectable from the data. The prediction‐error section is thus used to define a reliability threshold for the identification of AVO anomalies. Coherence analysis also enables quality control of AVO analysis and inversion. For example, predictions that are non‐localized and/or do not show structural conformity may indicate spatial variations in amplitude–offset scaling, seismic wavelet or signal‐to‐noise (S/N) ratio content. Scaling and waveform variations can be identified from inspection of the prediction filters and their frequency responses. S/N ratios can be estimated via multiple coherence analysis.AVO inversion of seismic data is unstable if not constrained. However, the use of a constraint on the estimated parameters has the undesirable effect of introducing biases into the inverted results: an additional bias‐correction step is then needed to retrieve unbiased results. An alternative form of AVO inversion that avoids additional corrections is proposed. This inversion is also fast as it inverts only AVO anomalies. A spectral coherence matching technique is employed to transform a zero‐offset extrapolation or near‐offset substack into P‐wave impedance. The same technique is applied to the prediction‐error section obtained by means of partial coherence, in order to estimate S‐wave velocity to P‐wave velocity (VS/VP) ratios. Both techniques assume that accurate well ties, reliable density measurements and P‐wave and S‐wave velocity logs are available, and that impedance contrasts are not too strong. A full Zoeppritz inversion is required when impedance contrasts that are too high are encountered. An added assumption is made for the inversion to the VS/VP ratio, i.e. the Gassmann fluid‐substitution theory is valid within the reservoir area. One synthetic example and one real North Sea in‐line survey illustrate the application of the two coherence methods.

An AVO Study of a Possible New Hydrocarbon Play, Offshore Central West Greenland

Since 1992, extensive oil seeps have been discovered in Cretaceous sediment and Paleogene basalt onshore central West Greenland. Offshore, the basalts are buried under younger sediments. Interpretation of seismic data offshore has shown the presence of a closed structure at top basalt level. Within the sediments above the closed structure can be seen bright reflections that have strong AVO (amplitude variation with offset) anomalies. These features may indicate the presence of hydrocarbons that have migrated through the basalts from deeper source rocks and been trapped in the sediments above the basalts.

The impact of migration on AVO

Amplitude variation with offset (AVO) analysis is often limited to areas where multidimensional propagation effects such as reflector dip and diffractions from faults can be ignored. Migration‐inversion provides a framework for extending the use of seismic amplitudes to areas where structural or stratigraphic effects are important. In this procedure, sources and receivers are downward continued into the earth using uncollapsed prestack migration. Instead of stacking the data as in normal migration, the prestack migrated data are used in AVO analysis or other inversion techniques to infer local earth properties. The prestack migration can take many forms. In particular, prestack time migration of common‐angle sections provides a convenient tool for improving the lateral resolution and spatial positioning of AVO anomalies. In this approach, a plane‐wave decomposition is first applied in the offset direction, separating the wavefield into different propagating angles. The data are then gathered into common‐angle sections and migrated one angle at a time. The common‐angle migrations have a simple form and are shown to adequately preserve amplitude as a function of angle. Normal AVO analysis is then applied to the prestack migrated data. Examples using seismic lines from the Gulf of Mexico show how migration improves AVO analysis. In the first set of examples, migration is shown to improve imaging of subtle spatial variations in bright spots. Subsequent AVO analysis reveals dim spots associated with dry‐hole locations that were not resolvable using traditional processing techniques, including both conventional AVO and poststack migration. A second set of examples shows improvements in AVO response after migration is used to reduce interference from coherent noise and diffractions. A final example shows the impact of migration on the spatial location of dipping AVO anomalies. In all cases, migration improves both the signal‐to‐noise ratio and spatial resolution of AVO anomalies.

Body‐wave radiation patterns and AVO in transversely isotropic media

The angular dependence of reflection coefficients may be significantly distorted in the presence of elastic anisotropy. However, the influence of anisotropy on amplitude variation with offset (AVO) analysis is not limited to reflection coefficients. AVO signatures (e.g., AVO gradient) in anisotropic media are also distorted by the redistribution of energy along the wavefront of the wave traveling down to the reflector and back up to the surface. Significant anisotropy above the target horizon may be rather typical of sand‐shale sequences commonly encountered in AVO analysis. Here, I examine the influence of P‐ and S‐wave radiation patterns on AVO in the most common anisotropic model—transversely isotropic media. A concise analytic solution, obtained in the weak‐anisotropy approximation, provides a convenient way to estimate the impact of the distortions of the radiation patterns on AVO results. It is shown that the shape of the P‐wave radiation pattern in the range of angles most important to AVO analysis (0–40°) is primarily dependent on the difference between Thomsen parameters ε and δ. For media with ε − δ > 0 (the most common case), the P‐wave amplitude may drop substantially over the first 25–40° from vertical. There is no simple correlation between the strength of velocity anisotropy and angular amplitude variations. For instance, for models with a fixed positive ε − δ the amplitude distortions are less pronounced for larger values of ε and δ. The distortions of the SV‐wave radiation pattern are usually much more significant than those for the P‐wave. The anisotropic directivity factor for the incident wave may be of equal or greater importance for AVO than the influence of anisotropy on the reflection coefficient. Therefore, interpretation of AVO anomalies in the presence of anisotropy requires an integrated approach that takes into account not only the reflection coefficient but also the wave propagation above the reflector.

Wireline shear and AVO modeling: Application to AVO investigations of the Tertiary, U.K. Central North Sea

Numerous examples exist in the literature of the successes and failures of the application of amplitude variation with offset (AVO) “gas effect” theory in hydrocarbon exploration. The acquisition of wireline and VSP shear data is considered critical information for accurate calibration, quantification, modeling, and successful application of AVO analysis techniques in a particular geologic environment. Wireline compressional, wireline dipole shear, well vertical seismic profiling (VSP), and surface seismic data are used to investigate the AVO behavior of the major lithologic boundaries and hydrocarbon bearing zones. Within the study area, lithologic boundaries produce significant AVO anomalies that may be easily confused with Class III AVO gas effect. In addition, the principal economic target, oil bearing sands, does not appear to produce AVO gas effect anomalies; although a Class III AVO gas effect response is observed when as little as 2 m of free gas is present at the top of the reservoir. Confirmation of an (Class I, II, or III) AVO gas effect in these Tertiary sands can be significant for detecting and delineating reservoirs; however, excessive emphasis on the importance of AVO gas effect, or high amplitudes on relative amplitude seismic sections, will result in an underestimate of (oil) hydrocarbon potential within the region.