Amount Of Resistant Starch Research Articles

Utilization of the field experiment results of University of Debrecen in the development of maize-based bio-ethanol production

Maize is currently the single raw material of bio-ethanol production in Hungary. The aim of our examinations is the observation of yield andnutritional characteristics of commercial maize hybrids in Hungary from the aspect of efficient bio-ethanol production. We set up a randomized block field trial. We determined the starch content and starch yield (t ha-1) of the 51 maize hybrids involved in the field trial.In laboratory conditions, we examined the amylose and amylopectin ratio and the amount of resistant starch of the selected 20 maize hybrids.According to our results, there is a significant difference between the starch yield the amylose component of the starch content and resistant starch of the examined maize hybrids. Our studies reveal that maize as a raw material must be selected based on the cultivation objectives. If the objective is bio-ethanol production, detailed knowledge of starch content is necessary. There is a significant difference among commercial maize hybrids in Hungary in terms of characteristics determining the producible amount of bio-ethanol.

Chemical composition, in vitro starch digestibility and amino acid analysis of a underexplored kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris. L.) grown in Chongqing, China

SummaryChemical composition, mineral analysis, in vitro starch digestibility, and amino acid analysis of a kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris. L.), grown in Chongqing, China, were carried out in 2011. The results showed that the bean flour contained low reducing sugar (0.79%) and fat (2.72%), but high protein (24.8%) and starch (44.84%). Mineral analysis indicated high Mg and Ca contents with low Na/K ratio (0.04). The proportions of rapidly digestible starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS) and resistant starch (RS) were 39.64%, 41.46% and 18.90% respectively. And the variation in their proportions, along with prolonged heating time, showed increase in RDS, and decrease in SDS and RS, but the SDS + RS amount can still account for major parts (51.63%) of the total starch after a 90‐min pre‐cooking. Comparing the amino acid contents of the bean sample with recommended profile FAO/WHO/UNU (1985), the results fulfil the standard except threonine and lysine, whose contents are slightly lower than the requirements (0.93 and 0.85).

Physicochemical properties of wheat-canna and wheat-konjac composite flours.

Physicochemical properties of composite flours made of wheat from low to high protein contents and canna or konjac at different levels of substitution (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100%) were prepared and analyzed. Compared to that of wheat flour alone, increasing levels of canna inclusions significantly increased the amount of resistant starch (RS) but decreased the protein content of composite flours. This substitution did not alter the total starch (TS), amylase and amylopectin contents of these mixtures. Changes in physicochemical properties were also observed in wheat-konjac composite flours. Increasing amounts of konjac flour decreased the TS, amylase, amylopectin, and protein content of the mixtures, but increased the amount of RS. Substitution of wheat flour with 75% of canna or konjac flours in HPWC (High Protein Wheat-Canna), HPWK (High Protein Wheat-Konjac), and LPWK (Low Protein Wheat-Konjac) increased the swelling power of these mixtures at 80 and 90°C. In general, substitution of wheat flour with up to 50% of canna or konjac flours did not cause any other observable decline. In addition, the substitution of wheat flour with canna or konjac flours increased the gelatinization temperature of all composite flours.

Influence of different levels and sources of resistant starch on faecal quality of dogs of various body sizes

In dry-extruded canine diets, starch ileal digestibility varies with the starch source, amount and processing parameters. Starch that escapes duodeno-ileal digestion can affect faecal quality by stimulating colonic bacterial fermentation. The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of various resistant starch (RS) sources and levels on the faecal score of dogs of different breeds and sizes. A total of twenty-one healthy adult female dogs (body weight ranging 5.0-30.6 kg) were used. The maintenance diet for the dogs was supplemented with increasing amounts of RS from two sources: high-amylose starch from maize (to 2.5, 4.3 and 7.4 % RS) and raw potato starch (to 7.4 and 11.4 % RS). Each level of RS was tested over a 7 d period followed by a 7 d washout period. Faecal scores were evaluated by one person using a scale ranging from 1 (for hard and dry faeces) to 5 (for liquid stools). Faeces were considered 'optimal' at scores of 2.5-3.0, 'acceptable' at scores of 3.0-3.75 and 'unacceptable' at scores >3.75. Small dogs showed very little sensitivity to RS based on the faecal score, while large dogs were quite responsive to RS supplementation. These results suggest that small dogs are poor models for assessing the effect of starch sources on ileal digestibility. They also indicate that a low RS content (strongly affected by source and processing) is an important factor for ensuring an optimal faecal score in large breed dogs.

Resistant Starch and Starch Thermal Characteristics in Exotic Corn Lines Grown in Temperate and Tropical Environments

ABSTRACTCorn as a food that is heated and cooled to allow starch retrogradation has higher levels of resistant starch (RS). Increasing the amount of RS can make corn an even healthier food and may be accomplished by breeding and selection, especially by using exotic germplasm. Sixty breeding lines of introgressed exotic germplasm backgrounds, selected for high yield, were grown in three tropical and temperate locations and analyzed for starch thermal characteristics and RS levels. Although actual values for all starch characteristics were within normal levels, most characteristics had significant genotypic effects, and all had significant location effects. Thermal properties of retrograded starch were more influenced by the environment than the thermal properties of raw starch, making retrograded starch traits more heritable than raw starch traits. This suggests that a breeding strategy based on retrograded starch traits will have a better chance of success than a breeding strategy based on raw starch traits. A significant genotype effect for RS levels indicates that genotypic selection to raise the level of RS and increase the healthful aspects of corn food should be successful. Significant location effects indicate that breeders using winter nurseries to accelerate their breeding progress need to be careful when making selections using RS data collected on seed grown in the tropics. A small but highly significant correlation between RS and some thermal characteristics, especially percentage of retrogradation, indicates that we may be able to select promising genotypes for RS selection based on our extensive database of thermal characteristics collected on a wide number of diverse corn lines.

Crosslinked and stabilized in-kernel heat-moisture-treated and temperature-cycled normal maize starch and effects of reaction conditions on starch properties

Kernels of normal maize were subjected to a heat-moisture treatment (HMT) followed by a temperature cycling (TC) regime that was previously shown to produce slowly digesting starch (SDS) and resistant starch (RS) (Wongsagonsup, Varavinit, & BeMiller, 2008). This starch (in-kernel HMT-TC normal maize starch [NMS]) was then subjected to a low level of crosslinking with phosphoryl chloride, to hydroxypropylation, and to crosslinking followed by hydroxypropylation to determine if it could be converted into a slowly digesting modified food starch. Five controls were used. Digestibility after cooking, RVA parameters, and DSC parameters of gelatinization and retrogradation were determined. Crosslinked in-kernel HMT-TC NMS had the greatest amount of SDS, but only 3.1% (compared to 1.3% in the native starch). Hydroxypropylated and crosslinked and hydroxypropylated in-kernel HMT-TC NMS had the greatest amount of RS, but only 35% and 33%, respectively (compared to 16% in the native starch). Derivatization changed the physical properties of in-kernel HMT-TC NMS. It was also found that subjecting the starches used in this study to the time, temperature, pH, and salt concentration conditions used for derivatization made significant changes to the physical properties of the starch. In fact, subjecting in-kernel HMT-TC NMS and HMT-TC laboratory-isolated NMS to the conditions used for derivatization but without any added reagent made greater changes in the peak viscosity than did derivatization. The same was not true, however, for laboratory-isolated NMS. And for the most part, the starches subjected to the conditions of derivatization alone also produced different final viscosity values, indicating that whatever changes in granule structure and behavior occurred as a result of treatment with reaction conditions were carried through the RVA cooling cycle.

Synthesis, characterisation and in vitro digestibility of carboxymethyl potato starch rapidly prepared with microwave-assistance

Carboxymethyl potato starch was synthesised with the aid of microwave. Optimal degree of substitution (DS) of 0.32 was obtained at 45 °C in 25 min using aqueous ethanol media with water/solvent of 0.15 at 200 W. The molar ratio of sodium hydroxide and monochloroacetic acid to anhydroglucose unit for optimal DS were 2.5 and 1.0, respectively. FT-IR spectrometry revealed the carboxymethyl starch to show new bands at ν = 1614 cm−1 and ν = 1429 cm−1. Wide angle X-ray diffractometry and DSC revealed a remarkable reduction in starch crystallinity after carboxymethylation, which was consistent with destroyed surface observed in SEM. The digestibility of carboxymethyl starch (CMS) was lower than that of native starch. With similar DS, there was no difference in digestibility of carboxymethyl starch prepared with and without microwave. As DS increased from 0.05 to 0.32, the amount of resistant starch in microwave-assisted carboxymethyl starch was elevated from 14.6% to 20.0%, which was much higher than that of native starch (10.8%).

Physicochemical and Digestibility Properties of Double-Modified Banana (Musa paradisiaca L.) Starches

Banana starch was chemically modified using single (esterification or cross-linking) and dual modification (esterification-cross-linking and cross-linking-esterification), with the objective to increase the slowly digestible starch (SDS) and resistant starch (RS) concentrations. Physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility were analyzed. The degree of substitution of the esterified samples ranged from 0.006 to 0.020. The X-ray diffraction pattern of the modified samples did not show change; however, an increase in crystallinity level was determined (from 23.79 to 32.76%). The ungelatinized samples had low rapidly digestible starch (RDS) (4.23-9.19%), whereas the modified starches showed an increase in SDS (from 10.79 to 16.79%) and had high RS content (74.07-85.07%). In the cooked samples, the esterified starch increased the SDS content (21.32%), followed by cross-linked starch (15.13%). Dual modified starch (cross-linked-esterified) had the lowest SDS content, but the highest RS amount. The esterified and cross-linked-esterified samples had higher peak viscosity than cross-linked and esterified-cross-linked. This characteristic is due to the fact that in dual modification, the groups introduced in the first modification are replaced by the functional group of the second modification. Temperature and enthalpy of gelatinization decreased in modified starches (from 75.37 to 74.02 °C and from 10.42 to 8.68 J/g, respectively), compared with their unmodified starch (76.15 °C and 11.05 J/g). Cross-linked-esterified starch showed the lowest enthalpy of gelatinization (8.68 J/g). Retrogradation temperature decreased in modified starches compared with unmodified (59.04-57.47 °C), but no significant differences were found among the modified samples.

Preparation, physicochemical characterization and in vitro digestibility on solid complex of maize starches with quercetin

The objective of this study was to prepare and characterize solid complex of starch with quercetin. Starches with different content of quercetin were prepared and their formation was confirmed by the presence of the carbonyl signal around 1662 cm −1 in the FT-IR spectra. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) suggested most of the starch granules disintegrated with many visible fragments along with increasing quercetin content in the binary mixtures. X-ray diffraction (XRD) of quercetin–starch complexes revealed that the crystal structure of native starch was disappeared and new crystalline regions were formed. The thermal behavior of quercetin–starch was investigated using thermogravimetric analyses (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). It was observed that the mass loss and thermal stability of complexes depend on the content of quercetin in the complexes. There were obvious differences between pregelatinized starch and quercetin–starch complexes in digestion rate. The digestion rate was drastically reduced as the quercetin was blended. The digestion rate was steady at about 37.3% for pregelatinized starch and 10.1% for quercetin–starch complex (2.5 g/100 g) after incubating 2 h. The residual starch of quercetin–starch complexes can be thought as resistant starch, the amounts of resistant starch were sharply increased in comparison with the pregelatinized starch.

Increasing the amylose content of durum wheat through silencing of the SBEIIa genes.

BackgroundHigh amylose starch has attracted particular interest because of its correlation with the amount of Resistant Starch (RS) in food. RS plays a role similar to fibre with beneficial effects for human health, providing protection from several diseases such as colon cancer, diabetes, obesity, osteoporosis and cardiovascular diseases. Amylose content can be modified by a targeted manipulation of the starch biosynthetic pathway. In particular, the inactivation of the enzymes involved in amylopectin synthesis can lead to the increase of amylose content. In this work, genes encoding starch branching enzymes of class II (SBEIIa) were silenced using the RNA interference (RNAi) technique in two cultivars of durum wheat, using two different methods of transformation (biolistic and Agrobacterium). Expression of RNAi transcripts was targeted to the seed endosperm using a tissue-specific promoter.ResultsAmylose content was markedly increased in the durum wheat transgenic lines exhibiting SBEIIa gene silencing. Moreover the starch granules in these lines were deformed, possessing an irregular and deflated shape and being smaller than those present in the untransformed controls. Two novel granule bound proteins, identified by SDS-PAGE in SBEIIa RNAi lines, were investigated by mass spectrometry and shown to have strong homologies to the waxy proteins. RVA analysis showed new pasting properties associated with high amylose lines in comparison with untransformed controls. Finally, pleiotropic effects on other starch genes were found by semi-quantitative and Real-Time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR).ConclusionWe have found that the silencing of SBEIIa genes in durum wheat causes obvious alterations in granule morphology and starch composition, leading to high amylose wheat. Results obtained with two different methods of transformation and in two durum wheat cultivars were comparable.

Formation of Resistant Starch During Processing and Storage of Instant Noodles

Instant noodle was prepared in a commercial noodle plant using varying steaming and frying conditions. Wheat flour had very low amount of resistant starch (RS) as 0.26 g/100 g dry solids. Dough was formed by mixing wheat flour with other adjuncts for 15–20 min, cut into about 0.5 mm strands and steamed in a tunnel for 90 to 240 s. Steaming of dough increased RS content from 0.22 to 0.49 g/100 g dry solids in 90 s and to 1.4 g/100 g dry solids in 240 s. Frying of steamed noodles at temperatures ranging from 145–170°C for 60–160 s resulted in sudden decrease in moisture content from 42.9–49.6 to 0.6–1.6 g/100 g dry solids and increase in oil content up to about 20 g/100 g dry solids. Frying of steamed noodle strands resulted in only slight increase in RS content (up to 1.2 times), depending on steaming time and temperature. Storage of instant noodles showed up to 1.4 times increase in RS content but refrigerated storage did not increase the RS content.

Resistant starch content of conventionally boiled and pressure-cooked cereals, legumes and tubers

Resistant starch (RS) content was determined in the conventionally boiled (H1) and pressure-cooked (H2) cereals, legumes and tubers using enzymatic method. Both H1 and H2 legumes contained higher amount of RS as compared to cereals and tubers. H1 and H2 lentils showed highest RS content of 5.0 and 4.9% (dwb), respectively. Higher RS content in legumes can be attributed to the presence of intact tissue/cell structures enclosing starch granules and high level of amylose (26-33%) and high content of viscous soluble dietary fiber components. The decrease in RS content of H2 foods in comparison to H1 counterparts (maximum decrease of 15% in pea) might have occurred due to changes in cell wall integrity of H2 foods and this could result in increased accessibility of starch to amylolytic enzymes.

Measurement of resistant starch in cooked cereal-based foods

Resistant starch, which has been defined as the sum of starch and products of starch degradation not absorbed in the small intestine of healthy individuals, is considered beneficial for health due to its effects on the human bowel and on carbohydrates and lipids metabolism. Cereals are daily consumed by the Italian population as bread, pasta, breakfast cereals, gruels, etc. Cereal-based foods (50 samples) belonging to the above categories were analysed, both raw and after cooking, by the in vitro method of McCleary and Monaghan (standard AOAC 2002.02 and AACC 32-40 methods) in order to assess their resistant starch content. Cooked potatoes and banana (raw and cooked) were used as a comparison. The cooked foods and also the bread samples were cooled at the temperature compatible with their consumption, rapidly frozen and freeze dried in order to standardize the analytical protocol. Freeze drying of cooked foods was important in achieving repeatability of measurements. Within each category of food, different amounts of resistant starch were found depending mainly on the nature of the cereals used as raw material and on other added flours (i.e. legume flours). Within all cereal-based samples values in the range 0.1‐3.4% d.m. were found.

Comprehensive Measurement of Total Nondigestible Carbohydrates in Foods by Enzymatic−Gravimetric Method and Liquid Chromatography

Total nondigestible carbohydrate (NDC) in foods was determined by combining, not modifications, AOAC Official Methods 991.43, 2001.03, and 2002.02. Total NDC included insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) + high-molecular-weight soluble dietary fiber (HMWSDF), nondigestible oligosaccharides (NDO) not precipitated in ethanol solution, and resistant starch (RS). Eight sources of NDC (cellulose, wheat bran, gum arabic, resistant maltodextrin, polydextrose, fructooligosaccharide, galactooligosaccharides, and RS) were incorporated in different combinations into standard formula bread samples. All of the NDC sources and bread samples were analyzed for their (1) IDF + HMWSDF content with corrections for residual RS amount using AOAC Official Method 991.43, (2) NDO by liquid chromatography (LC) in AOAC Official Method 2001.03, and (3) RS by AOAC Official Method 2002.02. The correlation coefficient (R(2)) comparing calculated amounts versus measured amounts of total NDC in 11 bread samples was 0.92. Analysis of commercial food samples was also well matched with the DF + NDO value on their nutritional label. Consequently, we confirmed a single measurement of LC can determine all NDO in foods, and total NDC in foods can be determined by unifying existing AOAC Official Methods.

Effect of single and dual hydrothermal treatments on the crystalline structure, thermal properties, and nutritional fractions of pea, lentil, and navy bean starches

Pea, lentil and navy bean starches were annealed at 50 °C (70% moisture) for 24 h and heat-moisture treated at 120 °C (30% moisture) for 24 h. These starches were also modified by a combination of annealing (ANN) and heat-moisture treatment (HMT). The impact of single and dual modifications (ANN–HMT and HMT–ANN) on the crystalline structure, thermal properties, and the amounts of rapidly digestible starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS), and resistant starch (RS) were investigated. Birefringence remained unchanged on ANN but decreased on HMT. Granular swelling and amylose leaching decreased on ANN and HMT. Relative crystallinity, gelatinization enthalpy, and short-range order on the granule surface increased on ANN but decreased on HMT. Gelatinization transition temperatures increased on ANN and HMT. Gelatinization temperature range decreased and increased on ANN and HMT, respectively. ANN and HMT increased SDS and decreased RS levels in all starches. However, RDS levels increased on ANN and HMT in pea and lentil starches but decreased in navy bean starch. In gelatinized starches, ANN and HMT decreased RDS level and increased SDS and RS levels. Changes to crystalline structure, thermal properties and amounts of RDS, SDS, and RS were modified further on ANN–HMT and HMT–ANN.

Effect of various processing techniques on digestibility of starch in Red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and two varieties of peas (Pisum sativum)

The effect of common domestic processing methods, such as splitting, soaking, boiling and pressure-cooking on the nutritionally significant starch fractions such as rapidly and slowly digestible starches (RDS and SDS), resistant starch (RS) and total starch (TS) in two legumes, Red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and Yellow and Green peas (Pisum sativum) were studied. The legumes had comparatively high amount (>30%, dry basis) of RS. Soaking of all legumes resulted in reduced starch fractions, possibly due to leaching of soluble fractions. Ordinary cooking of soaked as well as unsoaked seeds led to a significant (P < 0.01) decrease in RS and increase in RDS, SDS and TS. Pressure-cooking led to even greater reduction in RS and a greater increase in RDS. Cooking of legumes gelatinizes the starch and opens up the starch structure which makes them vulnerable to α-amylase hydrolysis. Splitting of legumes markedly affects the digestibility as well as RS content of raw as well as processed legumes indicating that the seed coat plays a key role in the digestibility of starches in these seeds. Overall, the enzyme resistant starch fraction of legumes was rendered more digestible by all the domestic cooking methods used.

Nutritional Property of Endosperm Starches from Maize Mutants: A Parabolic Relationship between Slowly Digestible Starch and Amylopectin Fine Structure

The relationship between the slow digestion property of cooked maize starch and its molecular fine structure was investigated. Results of the in vitro Englyst assay showed a range of rapidly digestible starch (RDS) (70.1-98.9%), slowly digestible starch (SDS) (0.2-20.3%), and resistant starch (RS) (0.0-13.7%) among the tested maize mutant flour samples. Further analysis showed that amylose content was significantly correlated ( R = 0.763, P < 0.001) with RS amount but not with that of SDS, indicating that amylopectin is the starch molecule associated with SDS. Total starch debranching analysis revealed a parabolic relationship between SDS content and the weight ratio of amylopectin short chains (DP < 13, named SF) to long chains (DP >/= 13, named LF), which means amylopectin with a higher amount of either short chains or long chains can produce relatively high amounts of SDS. Furthermore, debranching analysis of the SDS materials from samples with the highest and lowest weight ratios of SF/LF (both had a high amount SDS) showed significantly different profiles, indicating there is not a uniform molecular structure for SDS. Thus, genetic mutants of maize samples have a good potential to provide raw starch materials of high nutritional quality. An additional finding showed that a simple and comparably high-throughput technique of Rapid Visco-Analyzer (RVA) can be used to screen genetic mutants on the basis of their RVA profiles.

Effects of resistant starch on colonic preneoplastic aberrant crypt foci in rats

This study was designed to determine the effects of resistant starch (RS) at different levels on the azoxymethane (AOM)-induced colonic aberrant crypt foci (ACF) at the pre-initiation (PI) and promotion (P) stages in Wistar rats. According to the consuming assigned diets, all animals received AOM at a dosage of 15 mg/kg once a week for two consecutive weeks. In experiment 1, four groups of rats ( n = 12) were given AOM after 3 weeks of consuming the AIN-76 (control group) and RS diets. In experiment 2, four groups of rats ( n = 12) were given AOM before 3 weeks of consuming the AIN-76 and RS diets. Rats were killed after 13 weeks of initial injecting AOM. Colons were fixed in formalin and ACF were quantified after staining. In experiment 1, rats fed RS had more ACF than that of the control fed rats. In experiment 2, rats fed RS had fewer ACF than that of the control fed rats. The results indicate that dietary RS suppresses AOM-induced ACF formation, only at the P stage. A significant dose-response effect was observed between suppression of ACF formation and dietary RS amount. However, RS promote the formation of ACF at the PI stage.

In vitro starch digestibility and estimated glycemic index of chemically modified corn starches

Abstract Normal corn starch was chemically modified by oxidation, acetylation, hydroxypropylation, and cross-linking, and the digestibility and glycemic indices (GI) of these modified starches were examined by in vitro hydrolysis using pancreatic α-amylase. During the early stage of hydrolysis (up to 60 min) with prime (ungelatinized) starches, the modified starches were hydrolyzed at greater extents than the unmodified starches. However, at the late stage of hydrolysis (after 3 h), the modified starches showed lower degrees of hydrolysis than the unmodified starch. The amount of resistant starch (RS) in prime starches were 23.4%, 35.1%, 34.2%, and 13.9% in the acetylated, oxidized, hydroxypropylated, and cross-linked starches, respectively, whereas the unmodified starch contained 11.9%. The amount of slowly digestible starch (SDS) was decreased as the RS content was increased by the modification, indicating that some of the SDS transformed to RS. By gelatinization, all the starches, regardless of type of modification, were more quickly hydrolyzed and reached maximum levels within 20 min. Like the prime starches, the modified starches contained higher contents of undigested starches after gelatinization. The modifications except cross-linking reduced rapidly digestible starch (RDS) content but increased the RS content when the starches were gelatinized. The hydroxypropylated starch had the lowest GI values, which were estimated from the hydrolysis profiles (70.6 and 86.2 in prime and gelatinized states, respectively), whereas the GI values of cross-linked starch were similar to those of the unmodified starch. Therefore, chemical substitution such as hydroxypropylation and acetylation, and oxidation can be used to reduce the starch digestibility and raise the RS content.

Starch Properties and Structure of A Wheat Mutant High in Resistant Starch

Starch properties and structure of a wheat mutant (WRS-1) high in resistant starch (RS) was compared to that of the wild type (Sumai No.6). In cooked hot flour and retrograded flour, the amounts of RS in mutant WRS-1 were 7.8 and 9.4 times of wild type (0.5 in hot flour and 0.6 in retrograded flour), respectively, and correspondingly the slower and incomplete starch hydrolysis was also in both types of samples. WRS-1 had a higher λmax of absorbance, blue value (BV), apparent amylose content (AAC), and contained the increased intermediate and long chains with 18≤ degree of polymerization (DP) and decreased short chains with DP≤17. Two types of starch granules, large A in lenticular shape and small B in spherical shape, were observed in both mutant and wild types. However, the starch granules in WRS-1 were relatively larger and some were irregularly-shaped. High content of total starch (TS), decreased contents of lipid (LC) and protein (PC), lower onset temperature (To), peak temperature (Tp), final temperature (Tc), and the enthalpy of gelatinization (ΔHgel) were observed in WRS-1.