Amount Of Grass Research Articles

Vole diet on experimentally managed reforestation areas in northern Sweden

In northern Sweden two field experiments with the reforestation techniques soil scarification, ploughing, burning and grass herbicidal treatment were performed. Small rodents were trapped regularly on the managed plots and their stomachs were examined microscopically for diet composition. Both bank voles Clethrionomys glareolus and field voles Microtus agrestis were common on the reforestation areas while only a small number of grey‐sided voles Clethrionomys rufocanus were taken. All three species underwent a population cycle during the studies. The management techniques generally resulted in small and irregular effects on the food selection. The most pronounced changes were lower intake of grasses by M. agrestis after herbicidal treatment and of filamentous tree lichens by C. glareolus after most treatments.Both bank voles and field voles ate predominantly forbs in the summer half of the year, whereas the field voles took also a considerable amount of grass. As a complement to green vegetable‐matter bank voles ate berries and fungi in summer‐autumn and tree lichens at other times of the year, but seeds and animals food only in very small amounts. Ail three species consumed large quantities of dwarf‐shrubs in autumn and especially in winter. Considerable amounts of bark were eaten by field voles and a smaller proportion by bank voles in autumn‐winter.Both for bank and field voles there were indications of worsening food conditions as the population cycle went on, There were, for example, an increase in grass and bark intake in field voles and a decrease in seeds and berries for the hank vole.

Ostertagiasis in calves. I. The effect of control measures on infection levels and body weight gains during the grazing season in Denmark

Abstract The investigation was designed to study the gastro-intestinal helminth infection established in yearling calves with reference to fluctuations in the larval contamination of the herbage during the grazing season. In a 2 × 3 factor experiment, comprising six groups, each of six calves, a comparison was made between infection levels, growth rates etc. in calves grazing the same paddock over an entire season and calves moved before the July rise in herbage contamination to paddocks not grazed earlier in the same season. A comparison was also made between animals receiving no anthelminthic treatment, animals treated 3 weeks after the start of the grazing season and again when moved, and animals treated every 3 weeks during the season. Before July there were no weight gain differences between the various groups of calves. During the rest of the season, the calves which were moved gained 647–869 g, while those that remained on the same paddock, and were exposed to a high level of larval contamination gained only 81–361 g per day. The effect of anthelmintic treatment was less pronounced, though significant. The weight gains were correlated to a high degree with the larval contamination levels of the respective paddocks ( r = − 0.79) as well as with the serum pepsinogen ( r = − 0.75) and albumin levels ( r = 0.75) of the calves and to a minor degree also with faecal egg counts ( r = − 0.45). The observed weight gain differences could not be accounted for by differences in grass quantity or quality.

Food Habits of the Meadowlark in the Everglades in Relation to Agriculture1, 2

While southern meadowlark Sturnella magna argutulla (Bangs) does destroy sprouting corn, both stomach contents analysis and field observations show that these birds are largely beneficial. Major stomach components include: billbugs (Curculionidae), Prosapia bicincta (Say), Mocis latipes . (Guenee), cutworms (Agrotinae), grasshoppers (Acrididae), and click beetles and wireworms (Elateridae). Beneficials were relatively light in these contents. In addition to corn, vegetable matter included small amounts of grass seed ( Paspalum ) and dayflower seed ( Commelina diffusa (Burm.) F.). Based on observations of meadowlark habits, non-lethal remedial action is suggested. Shooting the birds should be a last resort.

The influence of oxygen on ensilage. I. Laboratory studies

AbstractGrass was ensiled in laboratory silos in three separate experiments. In the first two of them, different oxygen treatment levels were achieved by ensiling different weights of herbage in the fixed volume of the laboratory silo. In the third experiment, the quantity of grass ensiled was kept constant, the oxygen level being varied by evacuation and injection of gas.Fermentation changes were followed during the period of ensilage. In all cases, when compared with the controls, oxygen treatments resulted in silages of lower lactate content, higher acetate content, higher pH and volatile N values. Butyrate was present in appreciable amounts in the high oxygen treated silages in Experiments 1 and 3. It was concluded that oxygen trapped in unconsolidated herbage had an adverse effect on fermentation resulting from not only oxidation of sugar but also from a direct effect on the activities of the microflora.

Importance of Nonbrowse Foods to Moose on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska

Food intake of three tame moose (Alces alces) was observed on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska during summer on normal range and during winter and spring on normal and depleted range. Plant species and bite sizes were recorded for 49,308 bites consumed. Food eaten varied between summer and winter, and moose ate a greater variety of forage than previously realized. Birch (Betula papyrifera) leaves comprised 56 percent (by number of bites) of the summer diet, forbs 25 percent, grasses, sedges and aquatics 10 percent, and willow (Salix spp.) 5 percent. Winter diet on range that had supported average moose densities for the area (15 per square mile) was 72 percent birch twigs, 21 percent lowbush cranberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) and 6 percent willow and alder (Alnus crispa). On depleted winter range, stocked for 18 months with abnormally high moose densities, birch twigs comprised only 22 percent of the diet. The bulk of bites taken were of lowbush cranberry (51 percent) and foliose lichens (Peltigera spp.) (23 percent). In May, moose consumed 10-30 times as much cranberry and lichen as birch. Availability of understory forage species during part of the winter is probably an important factor in supporting the very high moose densities found on this range. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 37(3):279-287 Analyses of moose range commonly stress abundance, production, and use of large woody shrubs (Aldous and Krefting 1946, Krefting 1951, Spencer and Chatelain 1953, Spencer and Hakala 1964, Houston 1968). This emphasis occurs because browse is the only food available to moose in winter over much of their range and winter range is classically considered a limiting factor for moose populations, and because range survey methods depend on the ease by which one can visually estimate browse conditions (Cole 1963). Emphasis on woody shrubs has persisted despite an impressive array of evidence that moose are extremely catholic in their tastes. Especially in spring and summer, they consume forbs, grasses, mushrooms, lichens, and practically all other floral components of their environment. Murie (1934) reported a great variety of foods taken on Isle Royale. Peterson (1955) listed more than 100 species and groups of plants taken at least occasionally by moose. Houston (1968), although stressing that browse was the most important food class during all seasons in Wyoming, demonstrated that moose ate significant quantities of grasses, sedges, rushes, and forbs in spring and

The Optimum Quantity of Grass Mulch for the Tea Field

It has been recognized in. many experiments that the grass mulch has remarkable effects on the tea field. But optimum quantity of grass for mulch has not been yet well known.This experiment was carried out to determine the optimum quantity of the grass mulch for the tea field.The results obtained are as follows;1.In the mulchless tea field on slope, the growth of shoot, the yield of green leaf and the quality of green tea were inferior to those in the mulch field. This was thought to be mainly induced by deterioration of micro climate and run-off of fertilizer.2.The optimum quantity of grass mulch will be fluctuated by the kinds of grass and tea soil, but in this experiment, it was determined to be 10 ton fresh grass per hectare. The growth of shoot, the yield of green leaf and the quality of green tea were good at this quantity. Therefore the grass mulch was thought to be suitable for management of the tea field.

The effect of management during spring on the growth of a mixed annual pasture containing capeweed (Arctotheca calendula)

A number of grazing and mowing treatments were imposed in spring on a mixed annual pasture mainly comprising capeweed (Arctotheca calendula) 36 per cent and barley grass (Hordeum leporinum) 27 per cent, with a small amount of (4 per cent) subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum). The effects of treatments on flowering, seed setting and subsequent autumn production were followed, with special reference to any possible reduction in capeweed content. Seed numbers of all species were reduced by grazing throughout spring (barley grass was least affected) and by late mowing (severe reduction in the grasses), but early mowing had little effect. The mowing treatments all increased the content of capeweed and subterranean clover in the pasture next autumn and reduced the amount of grass, especially barley grass. Close grazing increased barley grass content and, if it continued throughout the spring, capeweed content also increased. Seed germination following rain in January varied considerably between treatments, but was not greater than 3 per cent on any. It was highest where dry pasture residues were present, and clover and capeweed seed germinated more than grass seed. It was concluded that spring management is unlikely to offer scope for reduction in capeweed content of pastures.

Intensification of the spring-calving single-suckler herd

SUMMARY1. For four consecutive years, each one of four herds of 13 cows and calves grazed land stocked and fertilized at one of the following combinations of rates (ha/cow, kg N/ha): 0·61, 82; 0·51, 82; 0·51,203 and 0·40, 203.2. The Devon and Devon × British Friesian cows present in each herd reared calves by Devon bulls. Calving occurred indoors over the period February to April, the cows having been housed in early December.3. Live-weight gains of calves to weaning in mid-October did not differ between herds in any year. Live-weight increase of cows over the grazing season was similar and substantial in all herds. On average pure-bred calves were 25 kg lighter at weaning than the cross-bred calves.4. The main difference between treatments was in quantity of grass conserved and it was only in the herd kept at 0·51 ha/cow, 203 kg N/ha that enough was made to supply all the energy needs of the herd for a 150-day winter.5. Gross margins/ha were greatest at the higher rate of nitrogen application but no further improvement was evident at the maximum stocking rate. The importance of maximizing output/animal is discussed.

The effect of the early application of nitrogenous fertilizer and of the time of cutting in spring on the yield of rye-grass/white clover swards

1. In four different years, swards of perennial rye-grass/white clover were treated with nitrogenous fertilizer (0, 30 or 60 lb. N per acre) in mid-February to produce an early growth of grass. The effect of the time of the first cut, taken in March or April, on the annual yield was studied.2. The total annual yield was reduced when an increasing quantity of grass was removed at the first cut because this interfered with the development of inflorescences and reduced yield at the second cut.3. Fertilizer treatment increased early growth and advanced by 2-14 days the date in spring at which the yield was adequate for grazing; this improvement improvement was small compared with the extent to which this date was affected by differences in the weather from year to year.4. The response in total annual yield to N averaged 17.2 and 14.9 lb. of dry matter per lb. N respectively for the 30 and 60 lb. N per acre applications. The highest responses were measured when little or no grass was removed at the first cut. Where a larger crop was removed at the first cut the response to N was reduced; exceptionally it was negative.

Control of barnyard grass in rice in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area using 3,4,dichloropropinionanilide

Barnyard grass (Echinochloa spp.) is an extremely effective competitor with rice. In two experiments at the Yanco Agricultural Research Station, rice severely infested with barnyard grass produced approximately' 50 per cent less tillers per sq. ft. 90 days after sowing, approximately 50 per cent less panicles at harvest, and 33-55 per cent less yield than rice treated with 3,4-dichloropropionanilide ( DPA ) to control barnyard grass. In untreated plots, barnyard grass absorbed over 60 per cent of the total nitrogen taken up from the s oil by both the weed and rice during the first 90 days of growth. DPA applied at a rate of 4 lb an acre gave excellent control of barnyard grass. In the first experiment, when the grass was in the 1-3 leaf stage, application two or ,four days before irrigation resulted in much less weed surviving than when applied three hours before irrigation. This irrigation was followed by permanent flooding six day later. In the second experiment the grass was in the 4-7 leaf stage. There was no significant difference in kill of weeds between DPA applied at different times and rates. Survival of weeds in all treated plots in both experiments was significantly less than in the untreated plots. Treatment with DPA increased the yield significantly in all cases. Although the amount of grass surviving 90 days after sowing varied somewhat with different times of DPA application, the total yield, number of panicles per sq. ft., and panicle weight of rice, for any of these treatments were not significantly different.

De geologisk-botaniske Forhold i Forbindelse med Rislev-Fundet

De geologisk-botaniske Forhold i Forbindelse med Rislev-Fundet

Biochemical studies on insect haemolymph—I. Variations in reducing power with age and the effect of diet

The variation with age of eight reducing values of the haemolymph of Schistocerca gregaria was determined both for locusts reared entirely on grass and for those reared on an artificial diet to which a very small quantity of grass had been added. Random variation in results found in the former group was considerably reduced by the use of artificial diet, although in each case the normal patterns of variation with age were quite clear. Measurements of the specific gravity of the haemolymph of S. gregaria, together with Lee's values for the variation in blood volume with age, and the above reducing values, have enabled a calculation to be made of the variation with age of the total amounts of various reducing materials present in locust haemolymph. In particular, a very considerable increase in the trehalose content and a much smaller increase in glucose were shown to occur during the fifth instar.

The grazing preferences of cattle and sheep

Factors affecting the grazing habits of ruminants are discussed in relation to the attractiveness and nutritive value of herbages and the observed preferences of cattle and sheep at different times.Methods of measuring stock preferences are considered and it is concluded that, while frequent eye estimates of the quantity of each species appear to provide an adequate method, continuous observations and herbage sampling are useful adjuncts to it.The results of five experiments are given. Four were carried out in 3 years' winter grazing and one on spring, summer and autumn grazing over 2 years. In the latter experiment herbage samples were chemically analysed and a relationship with the observed preferences was calculated.In the winter grazing trials the greener grasses tended to be selected first, i.e. timothy, white clover, rough-stalked meadow grass, perennial and Italian rye-grass. Cocksfoot, Phalaris, red fescue and meadow fescue were not generally relished. Meadow foxtail, smooth-stalked meadow grass, tall fescue and sometimes the different varieties of rye-grass and timothy varied in rank from year to year as a result of differential frost damage and fungal attacks.In the summer grazing trials lucerne and white clover were found palatable in all the 1956 trials; in 1957 lucerne remained so, but white clover was less well liked, especially in June and July. The amount of grass growing with the clover seemed to affect attractiveness, mixtures being preferred to either species by itself. Meadow fescue and timothy were always ranked high, perennial rye-grass and cocksfoot usually next. Agrostis and red fescue were lowest. For the grasses, preference rank was positively correlated in 1957 with water-soluble dry matter, water-soluble ash, water-soluble carbohydrate and negatively correlated with lignin content.Results are compared with those of other investigators and they show a marked degree of similarity. Variability in the data for sheep is possibly due to limitations in technique. The results for sheep and for cattle are compared; and it was generally found that cattle were fonder of meadow fescue than sheep, and less fond of cocksfoot.Stock appear to graze those plants which will most readily supply their requirements for salts and energy (carbohydrates). Factors like dung, fungal attack, accessibility, density and toughness may interfere with this relationship.

The Estimation of the Dry Matter Consumption of Grazing Animals by Ratio Techniques

Because of increased emphasis on grassland crops, it is desirable to have an accurate method of computing the intake and digestibility of forage consumed by grazing animals. Although there have been many investigations and much thought given to the problem, no completely satisfactory method of estimating the consumption of pasture-ranging animals has come to the attention of the authors. The use of ratio techniques for determining digestibility has suggested a plan that should provide the desired information. The problem of determining accurately the feed consumed by grazing animals has been reviewed by Aamodt, Lash, and Garrigus (1). In this review Knott, Hodgson, and Ellington (13) were credited with introducing the concept of a standard cow day as a unit for measuring pasture yields. A standard cow day was defined by these authors as 16 lb. of total digestible nutrients (TDN) from pasture per cow per day. In 1946 Kidder (12) estimated the amount of grass consumed by steers by calculating the TDN requirements for maintenance and deducting the nutrient content of the supplementary feeds. Blaxter and Mitchell (2), Gallup and Briggs (8), and Lancaster (14) suggested that the feed consumption of grazing animals could be determined by taking advantage of tile relationship between fecal nitrogen excretion and dr), matter intake. Forbes (5) claimed that the total fecal nitrogen varies too widely to be of practical use in the manner prescribed by Gallup and Briggs. Forbes and Garrigus (7) obtained concordant results in estimating dry matter intake by lignin ratios and a simultaneous total collection procedure. Reid et al. (15) have proposed the use of an 85 per cent acetone aqueous extract of plant pigments for computing both the digestibility and the dry matter intake of forages. Cook and Harris (3) found the plant pi~nent method, although satisfactory for alfalfa, was not suited for the determiuation of the digestibility or consumption of winter range grass. They found that considerable variation existed in the pigment content of different plants, and these differences were clearly reflected in the urine of animals that had been fed plant species of different chromogen content. A review (17) of pasture committees pasture techniques has been published recently by the joint of the American Society of Agronomy, American Dairy Science Association, American Society of Animal Production, and American Society of Range Management.

Economics of Grassland Farming in the Cornbelt

ONSIDERABLE interest within the past few years has been focused on an area of agriculture commonly referred to as grassland farming. A plausible reason for this development is that over the years forages have not received the same degree of emphasis as other crops.1 Some persons are even willing to go so far as to say that with somewhere near equal attention to forage crops a new frontier in agriculture will be opened up-that within this frontier lies the key to the greatest potential in agriculture, today. History shows that new frontiers are usually surrounded by glamour and propaganda. In Michigan, we feel that much of the present day publicity concerning grassland farming is grossly overdone. The problem is nothing more than the age old problem of farm management with emphasis on forages. The remainder of my remarks will be directed with this vein of thought in mind. In organizing a farm, we recognize that soil characteristics of the land pretty much determine or set the limits for the minimum amount of grass which should be included in a cropping program. Generally, this minimum is referred to as being the least amount of grass required to maintain soil fertility and crop production. As one might expect, this limiting factor may vary greatly from farm to farm. Between the corn belt and those farms located elsewhere, even larger differences may be anticipated. In Michigan on a large number of our farms where the land is less fertile and rolling, the percentage in grass may be 35 to 40 more as compared to only 20 to 25 per cent on corn belt farms. It is even suspected that on the best corn belt farms, having deep level top-soil subject to little erosion, the proportion necessary in grass may be approaching zero. For such farms, it may possibly be more economical to supply nitrogen from the bag (commercially) than to attempt to provide it by growing legumes. It is generally agreed that on a good share of our farms there is a possible range over and above the minimum of grass where other characteristics besides soil characteristics play a major role in deciding the best propor-

Field Methods Used to Demonstrate Range Conservation

HORACE L. LEITHEAD District Conservationist , Soil Conservation Service, Marja, Texas T HE energy with which a farmer or rancher applies his range conservation program is likely to be in direct relation to his understanding of it. And his understanding, likewise, is apt to depend more on what he has seen than on what he has been told. Methods used to give a man this understanding through “seeing” are usually called visual aids. The rancher naturally wants to know immediately what he can do to get his range in higher condition. “But what can I do without rain?” he asks. “It hasn’t rained enough to make my grass head out.” The grass, it is usually safe to say, did not head out because the range was too depleted to make use of the rain that fell. The landowner wants to know why the amount of grass his land produces is not in proportion to the rain he gets. It is easy to point out that the grass produced may be due to the condition of the range, and to the ease with which the soil can absorb moisture and make it available to plants. Soil texture and soil moisture have a bearing on the amount of moisture the soil can take up and hold. The depth of the soil is important, too. But it is easier to show this than to tell it. Take a “sharpshooter” spade and dig around in several spots to see what the soils are like. In a valley the soil is deep. Feel the texture-see how fine it is. Soil moisture is held as a film around these tiny particles. It takes two to three inches of water to wet soil like this as much as a foot in depth. On the other hand, a coarse soil requires less than an inch of moisture to wet it a foot down. The finer the soil the greater the holding surface for the film of moisture. Select a plot where the range is excellent. Usually the soil here is darker in color than it is on poor condition ranges. That means there is more litter and organic matter-the living and dead plant matter, animal life and humus. The decay of grass roots, leaves, and the formation of humus improves the fertility, the physical condition and the waterholding capacity of the soil. The rate of water intake and storage capacity of any soil type can vary with the amount of organic material in the soil. For any range site, it is recognized that certain combinations of plants largely determine range condition. It is only when a range is managed in such a way as to build up plant vigor and to return organic matter to the soil that we can expect the combination of plants known as climax vegetation or range in excellent condition to become established. Just after a rain is a splendid time to show how range condition makes a big difference in moisture infiltration. Where a fence divides different range condition classes is a good place to show this. Use the sharpshooter spade again. Dig holes to show the depth of moisture penetration. In May of 1948, after a two-inch rain at Marfa, Texas, Soil Conservation Service range men and a group of ranchmen checked a site where a fence divided range in good and fair condition. They found that on the range in good condition the soil was wet to a depth of 30 inches. Across the fence that same amount of

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Resumen en español.

Sheep nutrition: II. Determinations of the amounts of grass consumed by sheep on pasturage of varying quality

A technique for measuring the appetites of sheep on pasture is described.Results are given to show that sheep consume a bigger ration, in terms of lb. dry matter, when on pasture than when subsisting out-of-doors on the winter type of diet composed of hay, swedes (or kale) and concentrates. This difference was noted even on grass that had deteriorated in quality, in one case as a result of hot, dry weather in early summer, and in a second case as a consequence of cold, dry weather in spring. With young, leafy pasturage at its best, however, the distinction is most marked.In the March of 1934, to quote but one example, four pure-bred Suffolk wethers, of live-weight varying from 120 to 181 lb., were shown to consume, on a diet of concentrates (350 g. daily), swedes (ad lib.) and chaffed hay (ad lib.), only 80–88 per cent of the amounts of dry matter predicted on the basis of Wood's feeding standards. During the following May, when grazing leafy pasturage of very good quality (digestion coefficient of organic matter = 81·l per cent), the appetites of the same sheep (range of live-weight now from 137 to 201 lb.) were found to have undergone a striking stimulation, the mean daily consumption of dry matter now being from 104 to 117 per cent of the amounts predicted from the standards. This implied that the sheep were consuming 1·13, 1·37, 1·13 and T53 lb. respectively more dry matter per day than they would have eaten had the diet consisted of hay, concentrates and swedes. The increased appetite is to be attributed to the superior palatability of the young grass.

The Quantities of Grass that Dairy Cows Will Graze

The Quantities of Grass that Dairy Cows Will Graze

An Intensive System of Grassland Management

It must be remembered that any figures given in this paper are for one season only, and not the average of several years work, and furthermore that this season has been abnormal. The rainfall for June, July and August was 21.6 inches as compared with 10.7 inches for the previous ten-year average. Consequently this is in reality a statement of progress rather than a report of a concluded trial of a system of management. However, a few general conclusions may be drawn from the year's work: A thick sod is essential for best results from fertilization. Heavy fertilization with nitrogenous fertilizers increases markedly the quantity of grass and also increases its nitrogen and calculated protein content. The carrying capacity of pastures may be increased by the use of the principles involved in this system. We believe that this Intensive System of Grassland Management, with suitable modifications, may be adapted to conditions in parts of the United States.