Amount Of Free Amino Acids Research Articles

Ingestion of Free Amino Acids as Opposed to Intact Protein Increases Amino Acid Absorption but Does Not Further Augment Postprandial Muscle Protein Synthesis Rates

Abstract Objectives The rate of protein digestion and amino acid absorption determines the postprandial rise in circulating amino acids and, as such, modulates postprandial muscle protein synthesis rates. This study compares protein digestion and amino acid absorption kinetics and the subsequent muscle protein synthetic response following ingestion of intact protein versus an equivalent amount of free, crystalline amino acids. Methods Twenty-four healthy, young subjects (age: 22 ± 3 y, BMI: 23 ± 2 kg·m−2, sex: 12 M/12F) ingested 30 g intrinsically L-[1–13C]-phenylalanine and L-[1–13C]-leucine labeled milk protein (PROT; n = 12) or an equivalent amount of free amino acids (AA; n = 12). In addition, subjects received primed continuous L-[ring-2H5]-phenylalanine, L-[ring-3,5–2H2]-tyrosine, and L-[1–13C]-leucine infusions. Blood samples and muscle biopsies were obtained frequently to assess protein digestion and amino acid absorption kinetics and subsequent muscle protein synthesis rates over a 6 h postprandial period. An unpaired t-test was used to compare overall exogenous phenylalanine release in plasma. For other parameters repeated measures ANOVA were applied to determine differences between groups over time (time as within, and group as between-subjects factor). Data are expressed as mean ± SD. Results Postprandial plasma amino acid concentrations and exogenous phenylalanine appearance rates increased after ingestion of PROT and AA (both, P < 0.001), with a greater increase following ingestion of AA when compared to PROT (time*group interaction P < 0.001). Exogenous phenylalanine release in plasma assessed over the 6 h postprandial period, was greater in AA (76 ± 9%) compared with PROT (59 ± 10%; P < 0.001). Ingestion of AA and PROT strongly increased muscle protein synthesis rates based upon L-[ring-2H5]-phenylalanine (time effect P < 0.001), with no differences between groups (from 0.037 ± 0.015 to 0.053 ± 0.014%·h−1 and from 0.039 ± 0.016 to 0.051 ± 0.010%·h−1, respectively; time*group interaction P = 0.629). Conclusions Ingestion of free amino acids as opposed to intact milk protein is followed by more rapid amino acid absorption and greater postprandial plasma amino acid availability, but this does not further augment postprandial muscle protein synthesis rates. Funding Sources This research did not receive external funding.

Withering degree affects flavor and biological activity of black tea: A non-targeted metabolomics approach

This study focused on non-targeted metabolomics analysis of the relationship of the chemical composition, quality traits, bioactivity of black tea (Camellia sinensis L.) with five withering degrees (WD65, WD60, WD55, WD50, and WD45, corresponding to 65, 60, 55, 50, and 45% water content in withered leaves, respectively) and their effects on sensory quality traits. WD60 was shown as the optimal withering degree (WD) with the highest total quality score (89.7), followed by WD55 (88.7). With increasing WD, the content of most volatile components increased significantly, but with no significant difference between some substances below WD55. The total amount of free amino acids increased with increasing WD, in contrast to a decrease in the total amount of catechins, flavonoids/flavonoid glycosides, theaflavins and glycosidically bound volatiles (GBVs). Black tea with a WD between WD65 and WD60 was shown to have higher antioxidant activity and stronger inhibitory effect on α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity or intestinal glucose uptake. The overall data indicate that WD60 treatment not only benefits the formation of sensory quality traits, but also shows better bioactivity.

Bioactive peptides generated in the processing of dry-cured ham

Peptides and free amino acids are naturally generated in dry-cured ham as a consequence of proteolysis phenomenon exerted by muscle peptidases. The generation of bioactive peptides in different types of dry-cured ham produced in Spain, Italy and China is reviewed in this manuscript. Major muscle proteins are extensively hydrolysed firstly by endogenous endo-peptidases followed by the successive action of exo-peptidases, mainly, tri- and di-peptidylpeptidases, aminopeptidases and carboxypeptidases. Such proteolysis is very intense and consists of the generation of large amounts of free amino acids and a good number of peptides with different sequences and lengths, some of them exerting relevant bioactivities like angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitory activity, antioxidant activity, di-peptidylpeptidase IV inhibitory activity among other and in vivo antihypertensive, hypoglycemic or anti-inflammatory activity. This manuscript reviews the recent findings showing that dry-cured ham constitutes a good source of natural bioactive peptides that have potential benefit for human health.

Vliyanie zamorazhivaniya na dinamiku aminokislotnogo sostava belkov telyatiny

The results of study of effect of freezing temperature on the change of amino acid content and the ratio of essential and nonessential amino acids in veal proteins are given. The meat of calves at the age of 3 months, bred in the Leningrad region of the RF, was the object of research. The amino acid composition of veal proteins was analyzed using the Shimadzu 20AD Chromatograph with precolumn phenylisothiocyanate derivatization and spectrophotometric detection at 254 nm by reversedphase gradient highperformance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The Kjeldahl method was used to define the protein content on the basis of the sample mineralization. It was shown that the change of the amount and ratio of essential and nonessential amino acids of veal proteins depended on the freezing temperature as well as on structural features of Rside radicals. Also it was established that the total amount of essential and nonessential amino acids in veal proteins during freezing at -24 and -35 °С temperatures decreased by 13,5 and 8,2%, respectively; the total of essential amino acids by 11 an 7%, nonessential ones by 22 and 11%, respectively. It was proved that significant changes were characteristic of amino acids with polar anionic and cationic radicals. So, the amount of amino acids with polar negatively charged radicals during veal freezing at temperatures -24 and -35 ° С decreased by 22 and 16,5%; with polar positively charged radicals - by 17 and 13,5%, respectively. At the same time, the freezing temperature affects slightly the change in the content of amino acids with nonpolar (hydrophobic) Rgroups and polar nonionogenic radicals. It was shown that the total amount of free amino acids increased independently of the freezing temperature. However, more essential amino acids were accumulated in veal frozen at a temperature of -24 ° С (2,33 times) than at -35 ° С (1,80 times). The amount of free nonessential amino acids changed to a lesser extent

Relationship between the amount of free amino acids and the salinity conditions in cultivation of two Neopyropia species (Rhodophyta)

Relationship between the amount of free amino acids and the salinity conditions in cultivation of two <i>Neopyropia</i> species (Rhodophyta)

Physical properties and food value of rice varieties of Western Himalaya

Six rice varieties namely Bhrigu Dhan, Begami, Desi Dhan, Paddy Karad, Sukara Dhan and Lal Dhan grown in the westeren Himalaya, as a dehulled rice grain, were evaluated with the aim of establishing their specific food value. Length, breadth, length/breadth ratio, thousand -kernel weight, density, and bulk density of all varieties were in the range of 7.80-8.70 (mm), 3.12-3.68 (mm), 2.15-2.74,13.79-28.66 (g), 0.10-1.25 (g/mL) and 0.477-0.657 (g/mL), respectively. Maximum length (8.70 mm), 1000 kernel weight (28.66 g) and bulk density (1.25g/mL) were observed for Bhrigu Dhan. Moisture content, crude fat, crude fibre and ash, were in the range of 11.21 to 12.92, 2.35 to 3.26, 2.22 to 2.69 and 1.60 to 1.79 per cent, respectively on dry weight basis. The highest and lowest value for crude protein was recorded in Desi Dhan (12.00%) and Bhrigu Dhan (7.66 %), respectively; and total carbohydrates were observed highest in Bhrigu Dhan (86.88%) and lowest in Desi Dhan (82.44%). The starch content ranged between 81.63 to 88.56%. The total sugar content was highest in Sukara Dhan (1.40%) followed by Desi Dhan (1.35%), Lal Dhan (1.32%), Paddy Karad (1.29%), Begami (1.25%) and minimum was in Bhrigu Dhan (1.05%), respectively. The highest content of free fatty acid was present in Begami (0.377%) and minimum in Sukara Dhan (0.293%) whereas, the maximum amount of free amino acid was present in Bhrigu Dhan (0.443% as glycine) and minimum was present in Begami (0.333% as glycine). Begami had highest content of iron and zinc (8.95 and 9.77 mg/100gm). However maximum values for phosphorus and copper were observed for Sukara Dhan 311.05 and 3.020 mg/100 g respectively. The maximum content of magnesium was observed in Paddy Karad 137.33 mg/100 g and manganese in Bhrigu Dhan 3.49 mg/100 g. The highest total phenolic content observed in Lal Dhan (297.45 mg GAE/100 g) and lowest in Begami (231.66 mg GAE/100 g). The amylose content of red rice varieties varied from 23.56 to 26.55%. Highest amylose value was recorded in Lal Dhan (26.55%) and lowest in Sukara Dhan (23.56%). The data for the sensory evaluation of cooked red rice revealed that the appearance score was highest in variety Lal Dhan, and Paddy Karad.

Effects of fermented wheat-rice distillers dried grains with solubles on meat quality and amino acid profile in broilers

The aim of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of replacing distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) with fermented DDGS (FDDGS) on meat quality and serum amino acid profiles in Chinese yellow broilers. Forty-eight 42-day-old male Chinese yellow broilers were randomly allotted to the treatments. Each treatment was replicated six times with four birds per replicate. Both groups received a basal corn-soybean diet that was supplemented with either 20% DDGS or 20% FDDGS. Broilers were euthanized at 70 days old. The right half of each breast was evaluated for meat quality. Both breast and thigh meats were evaluated for proximate and fatty acid composition. Serum from blood samples was analysed to quantify relative amounts of free amino acids. Breast meat from broilers supplemented with FDDGS had a lower pH and less drip loss than those supplemented with DDGS (P &lt;0.05). No differences were detected between treatments in the proximate composition of breast and thigh meat (P &gt;0.05). Myristic acid (C14:0) concentration of thigh muscles was reduced for broilers supplemented with FDDGS compared with those supplemented with DDGS (P＜0.05). Concentrations of lysine, taurine, alpha-aminoadipic acid, glycine, and 3-methylhistidine in serum were all lower for broilers supplemented with FDDGS than for those supplemented with DDGS (P＜ 0.05). Meanwhile, the serum phosphoserine concentration of the FFDS-supplemented broilers was greater than those supplemented with DDGS (P＜0.05). In conclusion, replacing 20% DDGS with a like amount of FDDGS can be recommended for diets of growing broiler chickens.Keywords: fatty acids, meat quality, shear force

Effects of long-term soaking on nutraceutical and taste characteristic components in Thai soybeans

Changes in nutraceutical and palatable components of Thai soybean (Chiang-Mai 60, CM60) and black soybean (Sukhothai 3, SK3) were investigated during long-term soaking at 35 °C for 48 h. Isoflavone, saponin, free sugar, free amino acid including γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and folate, and also antioxidant capacity (H-ORAC) were evaluated. Isoflavone composition in CM60, malonylglycoside and glucoside were degraded to their aglycone forms while components in SK3 did not change greatly during long-term soaking. Total amount of soybean saponins including DDMP-saponins and group B saponins (group B) did not change significantly but the ratio of DDMP-saponins and group B changed; DDMP-saponins decreased while group B increased with soaking longer than 24 h. The soaking process decreased the contents of free sugars; sucrose, stachyose, and raffinose. Total amount of free amino acids in CM60 showed a decreasing tendency especially for amino acid groups showing undesirable bitter taste characteristics after 48 h soaking. GABA increased after 12 h soaking in both samples. Folate content increased up to 12 h soaking but then reduced to the original amount or lower with long-term soaking. Antioxidative activities of SK3 decreased after 24 h soaking. Results showed that long-term soaking affected the amounts of isoflavones, group B saponins, GABA, stachyose, raffinose and folate.

Effects of Cooking Methods on Free Amino Acid Contents in Vegetables.

Vegetables are rich sources of nutrients such as fiber, minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants. Vegetables also contain various free-form amino acids, which improves their nutritional and palatable value. Cooking alters the content of free amino acids in vegetables, which affects their nutritional values. In this study, free amino acid levels were evaluated after cooking vegetables by different methods, boiling, roasting in an oven, and using a microwave. Results showed that many vegetables analyzed contain aspartate and glutamine abundantly. On the other hand, hydroxyproline, cysteine, ornithine and citrulline are the free amino acids existing at low or undetectable levels in all vegetables tested. The total free amino acid content in vegetables tended to decrease after boiling, and almost the same amount of free amino acids was obtained in the cooking liquid. Roasting of vegetables in an oven resulted in an increase in the content of specific amino acids, including γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Thus, it is important to choose the right cooking methods to prevent the loss of free amino acids. The results of the present study emphasize the changes in the contents of free amino acids during cooking with methods that are typically used on a daily basis. Our study on the dynamics of free amino acids caused by various cooking methods provides ample information for future nutritional studies.

ALLELOPATHIC EFFECT OF RHAZYA STRICTA PLANT RESIDUE ON RAPHANUS SATIVUS (RADISH)

This study was designed to investigate the allelopathic potential of Rhazya stricta on Raphanus sativus using laboratory bioassay and greenhouse pot experiment. In laboratory bioassay, aqueous extract of R. stricta showed inhibitory effect on R. sativus seedling growth particularly at the high concentrations. The germination percentages were not significantly affected. Results in greenhouse pot experiment showed that the residue of R. stricta showed inhibitory effect on root length, dry weight and root to shoot length ratio of R. sativus especially at the high concentrations at different ages. The Rhazya residue showed positive effects on the photosynthetic pigments of R. sativus particularly on the carotenoids and chlorophyll a/b ratio at different ages. A significant increase in nitrogen content of R. sativus including total amount of free amino acid, soluble and insoluble nitrogen and crude protein was prominent at the early growth stage especially at the high concentrations. The Rhazya residue inhibited the contents of soluble nitrogen of R. sativus in the late growth stage. The results of RAPD-DNA profiles showed significant effect of Rhazya residue on R. sativus plant from where variation in band intensity, disappearance of bands, and appearance of new PCR product.

The proteolytic changes in two different types of pastırma during the production

Pastırma is a traditional dry-cured meat product. Proteolytic changes play an important role on pastırma quality. In the present study, proteolytic changes of “sırt” pastırma (Longissimus thoracis et lumborum) and “şekerpare” pastırma (Semitendinosus) types were investigated during production. While the average total free amino acid (FAA) amount was 311.24 ± 21.76 mg/100 g dry matter in raw material, it was 825.26 ± 103.90 mg/100 g dry matter in the pastırma. Proteolytic changes were more evident after the first drying stage. Alanine, leucine, glutamic acid, arginine, and lysine amino acids in both pastırma types were predominant. The average total FAA amount was high in sırt-pastırma. Arginine (for children), methionine, isoleucine, leucine, and lysine, essential amino acids, were also high in “sırt” pastırma. On the contrary, SDS-PAGE profiles of the both pastırma types were generally similar and there was no significant difference between the average nonprotein nitrogenous substances (NPN-S) amount of the pastırma types. Practical applications Although it is possible to produce many types of pastırma depending on the muscle used as raw material, the “sırt-pastırma” and “şekerpare-pastırma” are the widely produced types. According to the results of this research, the first drying in pastırma production is an important stage in terms of proteolytic changes. In the “sırt pastırma,” the amount of total free amino acid was higher compared to the “şekerpare pastırma.” This result could have a positive effect on the sensory properties of the “sırt pastırma.” Moreover, some essential amino acids were high in this type of pastırma.

Study on biochemical divergences of the meat and egg of freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii).

Aquaculture of freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) is an important fishery sector in Asian countries. The biochemical characteristics including proximate compositions and taste components of cultured freshwater prawns were analyzed for different gender and their egg. Freshwater prawns contained moisture ranging from 77.51% to 78.37%, protein with 19.56 to 19.91%, and low levels of lipid and ash around 0.2 and 1%, respectively. The moisture and protein contents of egg samples (72.82 and 15.61%, respectively) were lower than meat samples, whereas for the lipid content, it was otherwise significantly higher than the meat samples. The male and female meat samples of freshwater prawns were rich in free amino acids (FAAs), namely 1756 to 1725 mg/100 g with arginine, proline, glycine, glutamic acid, lysine, alanine, and taurine being the predominant compounds. On the contrary, the FAA amount of egg (590 mg/100 g) was remarkably lower than meat samples. The ATP‐related compounds in freshwater prawn meat ranged from 8.26 to 8.80 μmole/g, majorly composed of adenosine diphosphate (ADP), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine monophosphate (AMP), and inosine 5’‐monophosphate (IMP). The ATP‐related values in egg sample (28.33 μmole/g) were significantly higher with IMP (18.48 μmole/g) and AMP (5.44 μmole/g) being the predominant compounds. The pH values of male and female meats were neutral, whereas this value in egg sample was acidic (6.5). Urea content in egg sample was detected at huge value (58.35 μmole/g), whereas it was not detected in meat samples. These findings have established useful information for product developers to utilize the meat and eggs of freshwater prawns. In addition, the assessment of FAAs, ATP‐related compounds, and quality index (pH and urea content) was also established to give fundamental criteria to evaluate the quality of fresh M. rosenbergii.

Effect of Saline Soils on the Functional State of Species of the Genus Artemisia

The effect of saline soils on the functional state of glycohalophytes of the genus Artemisia (A. santonica, A. pauciflora, and A. lerchiana) in the basin of Lake Elton (Prieltonye) is studied. It is established that the higher levels of water and Na+ content in A. santonica leaves are correlated with a high content of pigments, carbohydrates, and phenolic compounds against the background of more intensive oxidative processes. It is noted that the accumulation of a significant amount of free amino acids is characteristic of the species A. pauciflora and A. lerchiana. At the level of structural components of membranes in A. pauciflora and A. lerchiana leaves, a high level of digalactosyldiacylglycerol and linolenic acid was recorded in the composition of the lipids of thylakoid membranes and an elevated concentration of phosphatidylcholine was found in nonplastid membranes.

An optimization of ultra-sonication-assisted extraction from flowers of Apocynum venetum in targeting to amount of free amino acids determined by UPLC-MS/MS

An optimization of ultra-sonication-assisted extraction from flowers of Apocynum venetum in targeting to amount of free amino acids determined by UPLC-MS/MS

Comparative analysis of protein composition and digestibility of Ceratonia siliqua L. and Prosopis spp. seed germ flour

By virtue of exclusive nutrient composition and nutritional properties, seed germ flours from both European carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) and South American algarrobo (Prosopis alba and Prosopis nigra) or vinal (Prosopis ruscifolia) have potential as a high nutritional value and health-promoting ingredient for food formulations. In order to define their compositional and functional properties, we investigated the germ protein content of carob compared to the P. alba, P. nigra and P. ruscifolia counterparts, applying proteomics and complementary methods. The mono- and two-dimensional electrophoretic profiles of Prosopis spp. were very similar among one another, while C. siliqua exhibited significant differences. Attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy highlighted a dominant β-sheet structural conformation for C. siliqua, suggesting that carob germ flour might more suited than Prosopis germ flour for baking and food technological applications. In contrast, Prosopis spp. contained a more adequate nutritional value than C. siliqua, in terms of essential amino acid complement. Both carob and algarrobo germ flour samples were highly digestible, as demonstrated by in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion, releasing high amounts of free amino acids and only minor proportions of low molecular weight peptides.

Determining the influence of the composition of milk from cows of different breeds on quality indicators for the dutch-type cheese

The paper reports a comprehensive study into the impact of feeding rations and breed of cows on the technological properties of milk and quality characteristics of the Dutch type of cheese. Despite the abundance of information on the relationship between domestic animal feeding and technological parameters for the production of cheeses, a possible relationship between particular properties of animal breeds, changes in feed, and a positive influence on the quality of products requires in-depth research. That explains the relevance of studying the influence of an animal breed and the optimization of animal feed on a set of technological parameters and quality indicators for the Dutch type of cheeses. We manufactured the Dutch-type cheese in a series of experiments using milk from cows of different breeds, obtained at different rations of feeding. We compared the chemical composition of milk from three groups of cows ‒ the Ukrainian brown dairy breed, Lebedinskaya breed, and Simmental breed, at different feed. The results obtained demonstrate that the use of alfalfa haylage contributes to an increase in the mass share of a dry fat-free milk residue in milk, improves its suitability for cheese, as compared with milk obtained over a silage-hay period.We have worked out technological modes for producing the hard Dutch-type cheese from milk of three cow breeds at different feeding rations. It is shown that when applying alfalfa haylage to feed animals the duration of basic technological operations shortens. That helps reduce the share of dry substances (including fat) in whey, and increases the output of finished product. The samples of hard Dutch-type cheese, made from milk of all three groups of animals over a haylage-hay period are characterized by a high content of essential amino acids, as well as free amino acids, and soluble non-protein nitrogen. That predetermined their higher degree of ripeness, and the larger point-based assessment, in terms of organoleptic characteristics (by 7‒15 points), compared to the samples of cheese produced from milk received over a silage-hay period. The highest point-based estimate for organoleptic characteristics (99 points) was given to samples of the Dutch-type cheese made from milk of the Ukrainian brown dairy cow, milked over a haylage-hay period.It was established that an animal breed has a significant impact on the suitability of milk for cheese and yield of the finished product. The most significant influence of the optimized feeding was exerted on the organoleptic and sensorial indicators for a Dutch-type cheese. The proof are the indicators for proteolytic activity. There was an increase in the growth of nitrogen within soluble fractions, an accelerated maturation process, as evidenced by the accumulation of low-molecular nitrogenous fractions. The largest total amount of free amino acids was demonstrated by cheese made from milk of the cows that were fed the improved ration using alfalfa haylage.The developed feeding rations, as well as the improved technological parameters for making a Dutch-type cheese, could be recommended as the cost and product quality management methods for producing mass-market and craft cheese.

Role of moisture evaporation in the taste attributes of dry- and wet-aged beef determined by chemical and electronic tongue analyses

The role of moisture evaporation in the taste attributes of dry- and wet-aged beef was determined in this study. A total of 30 striploins (longissimus lumborum) were dry or wet aged for 28 days and analyzed for moisture content, taste-active compounds [free amino acids (FAAs), inosine 5′-monophophate (IMP), and reducing sugars], and taste attributes by an electronic tongue. After the completion of aging process, higher amounts of FAAs and reducing sugars were found in dry-aged beef (P < .05) in negative correlations with moisture content (r2 = −0.9 and − 0.9, respectively), which were not detected in wet-aged beef. However, the different taste attributes of dry- and wet-aged beef were observed by the electronic tongue from day 14, whereas their moisture content was significantly different only at day 28. Consequently, although the moisture evaporation during dry aging process contributed to the increased flavor of dry-aged beef, there are other factors affecting flavor development including microbial activity on the surface crust.

Growth kinetics and lactic acid production of Lactobacillus plantarum NRRL B-4496, L. acidophilus NRRL B-4495, and L. reuteri B-14171 in media containing egg white hydrolysates

The objective of this study was to assess the performance of fermentation media containing egg white hydrolysates (EWH) and/or dried egg white (DEW) with standard MRS media on the growth of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) Lactobacillus plantarum NRRL B-4496, L. acidophilus NRRL B-449, and L. reuteri B-14171. Four fermentation media for growing LAB were evaluated: (1) standard MRS media, (2) MRS with no nitrogen source (MRSN), (3) MRSN with EWH (MRSN-EWH), and (4) MRSN with DEW (MRSN-DEW). The fermentation media were incubated with LAB at 37 °C for 24 h and periodically sampled to obtain growth curves, pH, and titratable acidity. The results showed that EWH had higher amounts of free amino acids compared to DEW. Threonine and leucine were the predominant free amino acids found in EWH. MRSN-EWH was better at promoting the growth of L. acidophilus NRRL B-449 and L. reuteri B-14171 in terms biomass production, maximum growth rate and titratable acidity than MRS. MRS and MRSN-EWH media supported greater cell biomass yields than MRSN and MRSN-DEW for L. plantarum NRRL B-4496. This study showed that egg white hydrolysates can be used in fermentation media to enhance the growth of probiotic lactic acid bacteria.

Rhizopus delemar로 발효된 지황의 이화학적 성분 분석

Background: This study was carried out to determine the physicochemical components of Rehmannia glutinosa (RG) fermented with Rhizopus delemar.BR Methods and Results: Physicochemical components such as changes in moisture content, pH value, total acidity, amount of reducing sugars as well as quantity of free sugars, free amino acids, and catalpol were investigated. Result showed that, the moisture content ranged from 64.26 to 65.51%. The pH and total acidity of the fermented RG decreased significantly during fermentation. The reducing sugar content ranged from 0.10 to 1.34%. The most abundant main free sugars were identified as raffinose, xylose, glucose, fructose, and sucrose. The sucrose content in 80% ethanol and in water extracts increased during RG fermentation. In total, 26 free amino acids were detected, including seven essential amino acids. In addition, the quantity of free amino acids decreased significantly during fermentation. Finally, the catalpol content of the fermented RG was highest on the 2SUPnd/SUP day of fermentation at 2,028.67㎎/ 100 g.BR Conclusions: These results indicated that fermentation of Rhizopus delemar could be used to enhance biological activity, and that fermented RG could be used as a functional material and as an edible resource in food and functional materials industries.

Proximate composition and profiles of free amino acids, fatty acids, minerals and aroma compounds in Citrus natsudaidai peel

Bulky hard peel of Citrus natsudaidai is discarded and not utilized enough in Japan. In this study, the nutritional composition and volatile components of three cultivars of C. natsudaidai peel were determined. Considering the proximate composition and minerals, C. natsudaidai peels showed good carbohydrate and potassium content. The peel color varied probably due to the difference of cultivars. C. natsudaidai peels were extracted and analyzed for free amino acids and for fatty acids and volatile compounds. The amount of free amino acids in the extracts was not enough to affect the taste of extracts. The proportion of individual fatty acid was not comparable to other plant oils, however, typical aroma compounds with citrusy smell were identified. C. natsudaidai extracts could contribute for the utilization as flavoring additives without affecting taste.