American Professional Sports Research Articles

Fan substitution between North American professional sports leagues

We use Canada-to-US border crossing data to estimate market penetration and fan substitution across sports leagues. We find that passenger car crossings into the US increase by more than 2000 when the National Football League’s Buffalo Bills are playing a home game just across the border. This accounts for as much as 5% to 8% of Bills home attendance. Additionally, we find evidence of price competition, but not quality competition, between the Bills and Toronto-based teams in the three other major North American pro sports leagues. Given the exclusive market rights and antitrust privilege extended to professional sport in North America, these findings have important implications with respect to competition policies as they apply to major sports leagues.

Missing the puck at the bargaining table: the 2012–2013 National Hockey League labor dispute with some comparisons to European law

The largest American professional team sports, baseball, basketball, football, and ice hockey, are all unionized, and in the past three decades, work stoppages during collective bargaining have become common in each. The 2012–2013 Major League Hockey Association lockout was one of the most contentious, resulting in the lengthiest labor union–management contract in the history of American sports. This article chronicles the issues, the events of that bargaining, and the eventual settlement that followed a cessation of professional hockey that had lasted 113 days. A brief section summarizes some comparative law in Austria and Germany to project how this strife might have been handled there. The dispute included a lawsuit filed by the owners and a potential class action lawsuit by individual players, provided they were legally able to disclaim interest in the union. The drama included both labor law and antitrust law issues and some overlap of Canadian and American federal labor laws, since NHL teams are based in both countries.

¿Muy valiente, o loco?: How “Los Suns” Created a Political Controversy That Transcends Basketball

This article presents a brief overview of the instances in which American professional sports teams have worn Spanish-language jerseys. It examines in detail the one case in which the Spanish-language jerseys became a point of controversy—when the Phoenix Suns wore a “Los Suns” jersey in the 2010 playoffs. The article discusses what the use of these jerseys says about relations between recent Latino immigrants, the established Latino population, and the Anglo-American population in the United States, and it provides insights into why this practice might be a smart move by professional sports leagues and teams.

Determinants of Regional Sport Network Television Ratings in MLB, NBA, and NHL

This paper examines the determinants of live game Regional Sport Network (RSN) average annual ratings in three major North American professional sport leagues: Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), and the National Hockey League (NHL). A conceptual model of the determinants of club RSN ratings is constructed based on a marketing management framework. Five categories of determinants are identified: Product-Club, Product-Player, Brand-Club, Brand-Player, and Place. Data were collected over a 12-year period (1999–2011) for a total of 46 independent variables. The list of independent variables was reduced to 16 factors and a proxy variable for each of the factors identified. Univariate and multivariate analyses were undertaken. Strong support for the each of the five categories in the conceptual model was found for the pooled sample of all three leagues. Results at the individual league level revealed league differences in the relative importance of individual variables. Implications for future research and practice are presented.

Sports Reporting: A Comprehensive Review of the Medical Literature Regarding North American Professional Sports

Background: The increased physical demands of professional athletes predispose this patient population to a unique set of injuries typically not seen in the general population. This systematic literature review investigates the nature of injury reporting (both orthopedic and nonorthopedic conditions) in the medical literature of professional athletes in the National Football League (NFL), Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), and the National Hockey League (NHL). Rigorous reporting of sports injuries helps clinicians better understand disease mechanisms relevant to specific sports. Hypothesis: The nature of injury reporting will differ within each professional sport and reflect the anatomic emphasis of each sport. Methods: An electronic literature search of all publications addressing injuries and medical conditions among professional athletes in the NFL, MLB, NBA, and NHL was conducted using the Pubmed/Medline, Scopus, and Embase databases through January 2013. Retrieved publications were categorized by journal type, medical type, and area of focus. Results: A total of 536 publications met all inclusion criteria. There were a higher number of articles regarding the NFL (n = 211) and MLB (n = 216) when compared with the NBA (n = 34) or NHL (n = 75). The NFL had significantly more articles addressing nonorthopedic injuries/medical issues than were found with the MLB, NBA, or NHL (109 vs 75, 14, 41, respectively). Both the NFL (33 of 109, 30%) and NHL (6 of 41, 15%) had a relatively high percentage of articles regarding concussions/neurology, and MLB had a relatively high percentage of articles dedicated to vascular medicine (13 of 65, 20%). The proportion of publications dedicated to the knee/lower leg were highest in the NFL (29 of 102, 28%) and NBA (9 of 20, 45%), those dedicated to the shoulder/elbow were highest in MLB (113 of 151, 75%), and those dedicated to the hip/pelvis were highest in the NHL (16 of 34, 47%). Conclusions: The number and type of publications vary among the 4 professional sports leagues, and generally reflect the nature of the sport being played.

Pin It

The social media platform Pinterest has emerged as a popular virtual space to showcase content found online (Hempel, 2012). Encouraging users to “pin” and comment on content featuring sports-related activities, athletes, and merchandise, Pinterest presents an opportunity for sports organizations looking to connect and build communities with fans. This study employed the relationship-marketing conceptual framework (Grönroos, 2004) to examine how four North American professional sports leagues used Pinterest over a 1-year time period to communicate as well as encourage engagement and interaction with fans. The longitudinal content analysis and chi-square analyses of 24,156 pins revealed the sports teams used Pinterest to promote the fan group experience, provide team and game information, and sell team-related merchandise. Theoretical and practical implications will be discussed, including recommendations for sports organizations seeking to engage their fans and communicate online.

The Joy of Pain: Schadenfreude and the Dark Side of Human Nature by Richard H. Smith

reviews in my much-thumbed copy [of A Moveable Feast], as if to say the prose works on me like a poem”), F. Scott Fitzgerald, Norman Mailer, et al. Rudolf’s interests and opinions range widely. In his section “Fiction I Don’t Read,” he includes crime fiction and historical fiction. On politics: “I tremble for my grandchildren faced with the rotten, polluted, and unfair world we are passing on to them, and as a consequence one of my dominant modes is anger, of which there is plenty in The Penguin Book of Socialist Verse.” He later admits that his “neglect of history and economics is . . . serious.” On sport, Rudolf extols cricket, quoting the Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers: “If the French noblesse had been capable of playing cricket with their peasants their chateaux would never have been burnt.” Inevitably, clichés creep into his dialogue: his simplistic view of nuclear science (“the nuclear winter”) borders on the hysteric: “people are waking up to the dangers although the pessimist in me thinks it may already be too late.” George Bush, he opines, “fiddled while Rome burned,” and “all that is necessary for the triumph of extinction is for good men to remain in denial.” Anthony Rudolf is an intense reader and writer: his opinions are dogmatically personal and revealing and reflect the extensiveness of his library. His lifetime infatuation with the printed page provides a sometimes-delightful excursion and a sometimes-frustrating read. Daniel P. King Whitefish Bay, Wisconsin Richard H. Smith. The Joy of Pain: Schadenfreude and the Dark Side of Human Nature. New York. Oxford University Press. 2013. isbn 9780199734542 Schadenfreude, the act of taking pleasure in another’s pain, is the subject of University of Kentucky psychologist Richard H. Smith’s slim new volume, The Joy of Pain. Though Schadenfreude seeps into every aspect of our daily life and culture, conscious acknowledgment of the emotion often escapes us. The Joy of Pain is here to help us identify the why and how, not only of this specific emotion’s prevalence, but also its paradoxical elusiveness. Indeed, there is no English equivalent for schadenfreude, which means “shameful joy” in German; a state of being that Smith attributes to people’s tendency to not want to acknowledge their own schadenfreude . With deftness, Smith moves from chapter to chapter, carefully uncovering this complex yet common emotion using every means imaginable at his disposal. Smith keeps the content rather light for nonpsychologist readers. He props up his arguments with examples from American pop culture, professional sports, history, politics, literature, philosophy, psychology, biblical parables, and personal anecdotes . One of the most memorable chapters, titled “Humilitainment,” focuses on the phenomena of mass schadenfreude through pop culture, particularly in American reality television of the mid- to late 2000s. Everything from The Simpsons to Emmanuel Kant is used to dissect the great prevalence of “shameful joy” in human nature. Not only does Smith successfully show the prevalence of schadenfreude in American culture, but he also takes steps toward explaining the emotion’s simultaneous elusiveness in our everyday awareness. Along the way, Smith grapples with what to make of this primal emotion. He concludes that taking pleasure in the misfortunes of others is all too natural but harmful if not acknowledged and kept under control. Smith makes this journey into the darker tendencies of human nature an accessibly rousing read. Probably best serving as a gateway to more in-depth psychological writings , The Joy of Pain is nevertheless a well-thought-out, researched, and enlightening book on the nature of one of the most prevalent, complex, and least-studied human emotions. Tony Beaulieu Norman, Oklahoma Witold Szabłowski. The Assassin from Apricot City: Reportage from Turkey. Antonia Lloyd-Jones, tr. London. Stork Press. 2013. isbn 9780957391253 Witold Szabłowski is a Polish journalist who has written extensively 76 worldliteraturetoday.org ...

The Assassin from Apricot City: Reportage from Turkey by Witold Szabowski

reviews in my much-thumbed copy [of A Moveable Feast], as if to say the prose works on me like a poem”), F. Scott Fitzgerald, Norman Mailer, et al. Rudolf’s interests and opinions range widely. In his section “Fiction I Don’t Read,” he includes crime fiction and historical fiction. On politics: “I tremble for my grandchildren faced with the rotten, polluted, and unfair world we are passing on to them, and as a consequence one of my dominant modes is anger, of which there is plenty in The Penguin Book of Socialist Verse.” He later admits that his “neglect of history and economics is . . . serious.” On sport, Rudolf extols cricket, quoting the Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers: “If the French noblesse had been capable of playing cricket with their peasants their chateaux would never have been burnt.” Inevitably, clichés creep into his dialogue: his simplistic view of nuclear science (“the nuclear winter”) borders on the hysteric: “people are waking up to the dangers although the pessimist in me thinks it may already be too late.” George Bush, he opines, “fiddled while Rome burned,” and “all that is necessary for the triumph of extinction is for good men to remain in denial.” Anthony Rudolf is an intense reader and writer: his opinions are dogmatically personal and revealing and reflect the extensiveness of his library. His lifetime infatuation with the printed page provides a sometimes-delightful excursion and a sometimes-frustrating read. Daniel P. King Whitefish Bay, Wisconsin Richard H. Smith. The Joy of Pain: Schadenfreude and the Dark Side of Human Nature. New York. Oxford University Press. 2013. isbn 9780199734542 Schadenfreude, the act of taking pleasure in another’s pain, is the subject of University of Kentucky psychologist Richard H. Smith’s slim new volume, The Joy of Pain. Though Schadenfreude seeps into every aspect of our daily life and culture, conscious acknowledgment of the emotion often escapes us. The Joy of Pain is here to help us identify the why and how, not only of this specific emotion’s prevalence, but also its paradoxical elusiveness. Indeed, there is no English equivalent for schadenfreude, which means “shameful joy” in German; a state of being that Smith attributes to people’s tendency to not want to acknowledge their own schadenfreude . With deftness, Smith moves from chapter to chapter, carefully uncovering this complex yet common emotion using every means imaginable at his disposal. Smith keeps the content rather light for nonpsychologist readers. He props up his arguments with examples from American pop culture, professional sports, history, politics, literature, philosophy, psychology, biblical parables, and personal anecdotes . One of the most memorable chapters, titled “Humilitainment,” focuses on the phenomena of mass schadenfreude through pop culture, particularly in American reality television of the mid- to late 2000s. Everything from The Simpsons to Emmanuel Kant is used to dissect the great prevalence of “shameful joy” in human nature. Not only does Smith successfully show the prevalence of schadenfreude in American culture, but he also takes steps toward explaining the emotion’s simultaneous elusiveness in our everyday awareness. Along the way, Smith grapples with what to make of this primal emotion. He concludes that taking pleasure in the misfortunes of others is all too natural but harmful if not acknowledged and kept under control. Smith makes this journey into the darker tendencies of human nature an accessibly rousing read. Probably best serving as a gateway to more in-depth psychological writings , The Joy of Pain is nevertheless a well-thought-out, researched, and enlightening book on the nature of one of the most prevalent, complex, and least-studied human emotions. Tony Beaulieu Norman, Oklahoma Witold Szabłowski. The Assassin from Apricot City: Reportage from Turkey. Antonia Lloyd-Jones, tr. London. Stork Press. 2013. isbn 9780957391253 Witold Szabłowski is a Polish journalist who has written extensively 76 worldliteraturetoday.org Wilma Stockenström The Expedition to the Baobab Tree J. M. Coetzee, tr. Archipelago Books A slave woman remembers her life as her survival becomes more uncertain in the African grasslands. The knowledge that she can make the decision about where her body will go is simultaneously liberating and frightening. Readers become one in the mind and...

The Marketing and Economic Implications of Select Bankruptcies in North American Professional Sports Since the Start of the Global Economic Crisis

The purpose of this paper is to look at the effects of the global economic crisis on the North American professional sports industry, and more specifically some of the examples of how the significant change in the global economic landscape has had a direct effect on the sport business industry. The most interesting of these effects is the increase in the number of bankruptcies that have occurred over the past five years. An analysis of these bankruptcies in professional sports over the recent past will be described, including their causes and results. Specific analysis will focus on the marketing implications of these bankruptcies, including the challenges faced by marketing practitioners both internal and external to the professional sports industry. This paper will conclude with recommendations of how sport businesses should potentially operate going forward in this trying economic landscape from both an economic and marketing application perspective.

The Militarization of American Professional Sports

This article investigates how “war-speak” is incorporated into both sports media coverage and athletic rituals. It posits that while the militarization of American sporting events may help to comfort a nation in crisis and afford the Armed Forces a valuable recruitment tool, it simultaneously encourages a coercive patriotism that is morally problematic for many athletes and fans, especially during wartime. Likewise, although the use of war metaphors in sports media coverage provides exciting and dramatic language for players and sportscasters, it also devalues the war experience by trivializing its horrors and helps to sell the concept of war as sport.

Labor Pains on the Playing Field: Why Taking a Page from Europe's Playbook Could Help the United States

Work stoppages have become commonplace in American professional sports. Whether it takes the form of a strike or a lockout, a work stoppage, or the threat thereof accompanies nearly every labor dispute between owners and players. This is hardly surprising, though, because the current system for resolving labor disputes-the National Labor Relations Act and its implementing body, the National Labor Relations Board is ill-fitted to the unique challenges posed by sports labor issues. Additionally, there is no institution tasked with directly overseeing professional sports in America. The same is not true in Europe. Oversight bodies are common throughout Europe and help to resolve sports labor disputes before they turn into full-blown work stoppages. As this Article discusses, American professional sports need this type of oversight. Therefore, this Article advocates a two-tiered approach to solving American professional sports' culture of frequent work stoppages. First, the United States should enact new legislation to govern the resolution of sports labor disputes, as it has already done to regulate labor disputes in other American industries. Second, the United States should create a body charged with overseeing professional sports and implementing this newly-created legislation. By taking these two steps, the United States can end the pattern of work stoppages that plagues professional sports labor disputes and provide stability to this critical American industry.

Strong, Beautiful and Modern: National Fitness in Britain, New Zealand, Australia and Canada, 1935–1960 by Charlotte Macdonald

Reviewed by: Strong, Beautiful and Modern: National Fitness in Britain, New Zealand, Australia and Canada, 1935–1960 by Charlotte Macdonald Jock Phillips Macdonald, Charlotte – Strong, Beautiful and Modern: National Fitness in Britain, New Zealand, Australia and Canada, 1935–1960. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2011. Pp. 240. Strong, Beautiful and Modern is an ambitious and stimulating account of programmes of national fitness which emerged in the United Kingdom and her former settler colonies of Australia, New Zealand and Canada in the late 1930s and 1940s. Although the state had previously been involved in efforts to encourage physical exercise and health among children through the establishment of parks and playgrounds and physical education in [End Page 243] schools, Charlotte Macdonald argues that the measures which began with Britain’s Physical Training and Recreation Act of 1937 were the first occasion in these societies where the state had promoted adult fitness. Macdonald begins with the wider context. The most obvious was the challenge posed by the highly organised efforts of totalitarian states, especially Nazi Germany and made visible in the 1936 Berlin Olympics. But Macdonald is careful to show that the factors were more complex and politically diverse than this. There was pressure coming from labour unions wanting shorter working hours who argued for the human importance of leisure. And there was the fascinating outpouring of ideas about the value of physical health as the source of inner vitality which was a response to the modern world of cities and industrial uniformity. For women especially, movements such as the Women’s League for Health and Beauty established the idea that spiritual health and beauty no less followed from physical fitness. The next four chapters document in considerable detail the development and fate of state efforts in Britain, New Zealand, Australia and Canada. What emerges is that while each was affected by the broader context and each was inspired by others’ efforts, the particular stories were distinct. The UK’s Physical Training and Recreation Act of 1937 established the principles of the movement – that the state would try to encourage people to take up physical exercise through publicity campaigns and the funding of recreational facilities. But the limits of the funding and the strong British commitment to voluntarism condemned the initiative which faded by the outbreak of war. In New Zealand the impulse came from a welfarist Labour government which in promoting the workers’ weekend was keen that the workers use their time constructively. The state took its involvement seriously with the creation of a Physical Welfare Branch. But this expansion of the state awoke suspicions from conservative forces and when the National party came to power in 1949 the scheme was closed soon after. In Australia the movement was bound up with fears that urbanisation was undermining the ‘bush legend’, the outback lifestyle that was thought so central to national identity. After state action in the late 1930s a federal law was passed in 1941 as part of wartime anxieties. Macdonald suggests that the Australian movement lasted longest and was the most effective. Canada came last (with a law in 1943, again with war as a focus) but it was killed by the politics of the Cold War in the early 1950s. The last chapter of the book pulls together some broader generalisations about the movement as a whole. With its even-handed treatment of the four national stories one might have expected that the study would have presented itself as a piece of comparative history, in which the case study could throw up some generalisations about the distinct cultures of each polity. There are hints of this – the way the Canadian experience is shaped by its exposure to American professional sport and its Anglo-Francophone division, the Australian fascination with the bush, the interest of New Zealand policy-makers in extending the programme to the Māori community, and the British sensitivity about amateurism and individual choice. But Macdonald prefers to explain the different histories by particular circumstances than broader cultural differences, and her interest is rather in emphasising the common character of ‘the British World’. Obviously the common culture of the Empire is important and was vividly expressed in these years...

Chinese fandom and potential marketing strategies for expanding the market for American professional sports into China

As the global economy expands, it would seem to be in the interests of the major professional sport leagues of the US to move into new markets, especially China, one of the fastest growing and largest in the world. In order to sell effectively in this market, it is vital to gain an understanding of the potential fan base. To explore national differences in fandom, a survey was completed by sports fans in both China and the US to assess which sports participants followed and which media they used, to identify fan motives and their feelings about expansion. This study determined that there are clear differences between Chinese and Americans. While many of the Chinese were fans of American sports, they tended to follow individual athletes rather than teams and had relatively low fan identity but high levels of fan motivation. Motives also varied by country, with aesthetics and affiliation the primary motives among the Chinese sample. These distinctions can be utilised to create marketing strategies.

Factors Affecting the Price of Luxury Suites in Major North American Sports Facilities

Luxury suites have become a key revenue source and an important element of sport facility design for professional sport organizations. There are a variety of factors influencing the pricing of luxury suites; however, the recent recession has impacted the premium seat sales market significantly. The current investigation was the first empirical examination of luxury suite pricing determinants for professional sport facilities. An economic model, utilizing multiple regression analysis, was constructed to examine the relationship between the current price of luxury suites for major North American professional sports facilities and selected demographic, economic, and team/facility/league-specific explanatory variables, in a uncertain economic climate. The final economic models were found to be significant, explaining 57% and 60% of the variability in luxury suite prices, respectively. Significant variables of interest included team performance and league affiliation, which had a positive influence and the number of competing venues, which had a negative influence on luxury suite prices. The current findings further the body of knowledge in the pricing of admissions to sporting events though the development of the first pricing determinants models for luxury suites, which take into consideration the tenuous economic environment.

Factors Affecting the Price of Luxury Suites in Major North American Sports Facilities

Luxury suites have become a key revenue source and an important element of sport facility design for professional sport organizations. There are a variety of factors influencing the pricing of luxury suites; however, the recent recession has impacted the premium seat sales market significantly. The current investigation was the first empirical examination of luxury suite pricing determinants for professional sport facilities. An economic model, utilizing multiple regression analysis, was constructed to examine the relationship between the current price of luxury suites for major North American professional sports facilities and selected demographic, economic, and team/facility/league-specific explanatory variables, in a uncertain economic climate. The final economic models were found to be significant, explaining 57% and 60% of the variability in luxury suite prices, respectively. Significant variables of interest included team performance and league affiliation, which had a positive influence and the number of competing venues, which had a negative influence on luxury suite prices. The current findings further the body of knowledge in the pricing of admissions to sporting events though the development of the first pricing determinants models for luxury suites, which take into consideration the tenuous economic environment.

Practitioners’ Perceptions of Student-Intern Skills Necessary to be Prepared for an Internship Experience in Major Professional Sport Organizations

The purpose of this study was to examine the required skills and educational background of internship students from the on-site supervisors’ point of view. A questionnaire examined the role of the internship, the skills student interns should possess and several other issues related to the intern’s experiences including the minimum number of hours for student interns’ best experiences, preferred academic backgrounds of student interns, the responsibilities of faculty internship advisors, stipend or salary, important skills student interns should possess, number of student interns organizations accept, practitioners’ thoughts on requiring internships in sport management, chances for student interns to be hired afterwards, and internship evaluation. According to 36 on-site internship supervisors’ responses to the questionnaire, 50% of the major North American professional sport leagues were paying student interns equivalent to only minimum wage or a slightly higher rate compared to the national average a paid intern was receiving ($15.00-$16.00 per hour). Other findings were the number of student interns accepted and the number of hours those interns were expected to work. However, no specific courses were required of students in order to be considered for internships. Overall, grade point average (GPA) was not found to be a main factor on-site internship supervisors used to select appropriate student interns. While it is generally assumed that a cooperative relationship among the student, the onsite internship supervisor and the academic faculty supervisor is vital, on-site internship supervisors were not as cooperative as the literature suggests. It was also determined that student interns were not consistently evaluated to any great extent and therefore a universal manual should be developed for assessment purposes. The findings of this study also documented that on-site internship supervisors and academic faculty supervisors held different expectations and perceptions in terms of fulfilling the requirements for a degree.

Racial-Ethnic Team-Market Congruency in Professional Sport

This paper reports on an investigation of racial-ethnic congruency among professional sport teams and their local markets. The study empirically tested the relationship between racial-ethnic team-market congruence and market support. Results of the research provide some support for the relevance of team and market congruency in the marketing of professional sport. Although varying by city, by North American professional sport league, and by racial-ethnic community, the results demonstrate that consumers have noticed and used their own reflections in professional baseball teams to influence their level of team support.

An Exploration of Interesting Clauses in Sports

The purpose of this article is to explore a broad spectrum of some of the more prominent and interesting contract clauses that have worked their way into the practice of law in the business of sport. The study of these clauses can provide students with an opportunity to appreciate the legal issues and contracts from both an historical and practical perspective. Many of the examples utilized in this article reflect the fundamental principles of contract law generally. This article is also designed to offer the law professor pedagogical insights and queries when appropriate. The relevant sports law provisions and clauses in this article are found in individual employment and sponsorship contracts, league constitutions, tournament rules, and in the collective bargaining agreements between owners and the players in the big four sports leagues. 1 Contract clauses have played a significant role in the sports industry and sports law at amateur, recreational, intercollegiate and professional levels. Thus, exploration of these clauses extends beyond a fundamental study of the efficacy of utilizing an exculpatory clause commonly found in road races and other outdoor activities such as 1. The big four is a phrase commonly used to describe the four major North American professional sports leagues: the National Basketball Association (NBA), the National Football League (NFL), Major League Baseball (MLB) and the National Hockey League (NHL). See, e.g., Marc Edelman, How to Curb Professional Sports’ Bargaining Power Vis-a-vis the American City, 2 VA. SPORTS & ENT. L.J. 280, 291 (2003); see also Tim Chapin, Sports Facilities and Development: The Political Economy of Sports Facility Location: An End-of-the-Century Review and Assessment, 10

Major League Baseball Anti-Trust Immunity: Examining the Legal and Financial Implications of Relocation Rules

Major League Baseball (MLB) rules restrict the movement of any franchise into another’s territory. These territorial rules are designed to protect each team’s potential local revenue sources as well as to provide stability throughout the league. Recently, Major League Baseball approved financial compensation for the Washington Nationals move into the Baltimore Orioles’ territory – primarily because it was in the best interest of MLB even though it hurt the Orioles. However, the Oakland Athletics were unable to even negotiate a potential compensation plan for a move into the San Francisco Giants territory, despite the apparent financial benefit the move could have provided for every other league franchise. The Athletics are already located within 15 miles of the Giants, and their potential 40 mile move to San Jose, California would not add a new team to the San Francisco Bay Area; rather, it would simply be a move of a current team to a different location within the metropolitan area. The refusal of the Giants or MLB to negotiate a potential compromise has kept the Oakland Athletics in a substandard facility and has led to their potential move to Fremont, CA – a less desirable location than San Jose.This paper investigates the legal, policy, and financial considerations concerning Major League Baseball’s territorial rules. Specifically, it addresses antitrust law as it pertains to American professional sport, relative sport franchise relocation cases, financial arguments why leagues desire to control relocation, financial components of MLB’s current Collective Bargaining Agreement, and the legal and financial impact of a challenge to MLB’s territorial rules – an option the Oakland Athletic initially investigated prior to their decision to pursue a potential move to Fremont.

The role and relevance of corporate social responsibility in sport: A view from the top

AbstractCorporate social responsibility (CSR) represents behaviors that have increasingly strategic importance to many companies. CSR has been defined as a company's commitment to minimizing or eliminating any harmful effects on society and maximizing its long-term beneficial impact (Mohr, Webb, & Harris, 2001). The purpose of this paper is (a) to improve our understanding of how North American professional sport league executives view CSR and (b) to consider how CSR activities contribute to these leagues. Interviews with four senior league executives provide perspective as to the role and relevance of social responsibility in North American professional sport. The paper discusses the impact of leadership on CSR and relates the topics covered from institutional, strategic, and stakeholder perspectives.