American Boys Research Articles

Simply Put, I’m Tired: Efficacy to Combat Racism among African American Adolescent Boys and Girls

This study examined the mediating role of self-efficacy to combat racism on the effect of school-based racial discrimination and African American adolescents’ racialized educational beliefs. Our study analyzed data from a total of 525 African American adolescents’ boys (N = 256) and girls (N = 269). For African American boys and girls, teacher racial discrimination was associated with racialized educational beliefs, conceptualized by how hard African American adolescents believe they have to work in a school-based on their race. The results further revealed that for African American boys’ self-efficacy to combat racial discrimination in school mediated the relationship between teacher and peer racial discrimination and racialized educational beliefs. However, for African American girls’ self-efficacy to combat racial discrimination mediated the relationship between peer racial discrimination and racialized educational beliefs. The results did illustrate that feeling less self-efficacious to combat racial discrimination was associated with endorsing racialized educational beliefs for African American girls and boys. Research and practice implications are provided as well as the importance of considering gender differences amongst African American adolescents.

Fasting C-peptide values among adolescents in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys.

To report fasting C-peptide values and variations across demographics in healthy non-diabetic adolescents included in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) dataset. In this analysis, we used fasting C-peptide data from the 1999 to 2004 NHANES dataset for participants aged 12 to <18 years (n=2063). The mean ± SE age of the participants was 14.99 ± 0.06 years. The participants included 992 girls and 1071 boys, and more than 80% of participants had a body mass index (BMI) percentile of <85%. Among boys, the most notable finding was the increase in geometric mean C-peptide level from 0.51 nmol/L at age 12, to 0.65 nmol/L at age 15 years. Among girls, levels fluctuated around a geometric mean of 0.67 nmol/L. Girls had significantly higher mean log-transformed C-peptide concentrations than boys (P < 0.0001) after adjusting for age, race and BMI percentile category. After adjusting for age and BMI percentile category, non-Hispanic Black boys and girls had significantly lower C-peptide levels than non-Hispanic White (P=0.0026 and P=0.0093) and Mexican American boys and girls (P < 0.0001 and P < 0.0001), respectively. Despite these findings, both insulin and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance were greater in non-Hispanic Black compared to non-Hispanic White participants. Here we describe fasting C-peptide levels in a non-diabetic adolescent population. These data provide crucial insight into evaluating racial differences in endogenous insulin release and clearance and will provide novel information which can be used in assessing residual β-cell function and response to intervention therapy.

Recess and Overweight and Obesity in Children 5-11 Years of Age: 2013-2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

Recess has been shown to increase total daily energy expenditure, which may favorably impact body mass index by decreasing adiposity. This study examines associations between recess participation and adiposity. The study sample included male (N=1434) and female (N=1409) children 5 to 11 years of age participating in the 2013-2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Overweight and obesity were defined using age- and sex-specific percentiles. Recess participation interview questions were answered via proxy response. Compared to a referent group participating in recess 5 days/week for >30 minutes/day and independent of demographic and behavioral factors, analysis revealed significantly greater odds of obesity in females reporting no recess participation (odds ratio 1.80; 95% confidence interval, 1.03-3.15, p=.03). Furthermore, minority females were consistently found to possess greater odds of overweight and obesity independent of recess participation time. Only Mexican American boys were found to have greater odds of obesity independent of participation recess time. In a large nationally representative sample of US children, reporting no recess was associated with significantly greater odds of obesity in females. Minority females were also more likely to be overweight and obese and Mexican American boys are more likely to be obese independent of recess participation time.

Tri-Ponderal Mass Index Reference Values for Screening Metabolic Syndrome in Children and Adolescents: Results From Two National-Representative Cross-Sectional Studies in China and America.

IntroductionTo ascertain the possible cut point of tri-ponderal mass index (TMI) in discriminating metabolic syndrome (MetS) and related cardio-metabolic risk factors in Chinese and American children and adolescents.MethodsA total of 57,201 Chinese children aged 7-18 recruited in 2012 and and 10,441 American children aged 12-18 from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2001-2014) were included to fit TMI percentiles. Participants were randomly assigned to a derivation set (75%) and validation set (25%). The cut points of TMI with the lowest misclassification rate under the premise of the highest area under curves (AUC) were selected for each sex, which were additionally examined in the validation set. All of data analysis was conducted between September and December in 2019.ResultsTMI showed good capacity on discriminating MetS, with AUC of 0.7658 (95% CI: 0.7544-0.7770) to 0.8445 (95% CI: 0.8349-0.8537) in Chinese and 0.8871 (95% CI: 0.8663-0.9056) to 0.9329 (95% CI: 0.9166-0.9469) in American children. The optimal cut points were 14.46 kg/m3 and 13.91 kg/m3 for Chinese boys and girls, and 17.08 kg/m3 and 18.89 kg/m3 for American boys and girls, respectively. The corresponding misclassification rates were 17.1% (95% CI: 16.4-17.8) and 11.2% (95% CI: 9.9-12.6), respectively. Performance of these cut points were also examined in the validation set (sensitivity 67.7%, specificity 82.4% in Chinese; sensitivity 84.4%, specificity 88.7% in American children).ConclusionsA sex- and ethnicity- specific single cut point of TMI could be used to distinguish MetS and elevated risk of cardio-metabolic factors in children and adolescents.

Examining the Relations between Preschooler's Externalizing Behaviors and Academic Performance Using an S-1 Bifactor Model.

Externalizing behaviors are associated with poor academic outcomes in community-based samples of children as young as preschool-age. However, there remains debate as to which specific externalizing dimensions link externalizing behaviors to early academic skills. Recently, research has supported the use of S-1 bifactor models to examine the hierarchical structure of externalizing behaviors and the unique relations between externalizing factors and academic impairment in samples of school-age children. The primary goals of this study were to extend the age range at which S-1 bifactor models are applied to externalizing behaviors and to determine if factors derived from an S-1 bifactor model had differing relations to early academic skills. In this study, the early academic skills of 1,356 preschool-age children (mean age = 49.98months; SD = 8.08) were assessed, and preschool and childcare teachers rated children's externalizing behaviors. Results indicated that an S-1 bifactor model with a Hyperactive-Impulsive reference factor yielded the best-fitting model for preschool-age children's externalizing behaviors. Structural models revealed that both the Hyperactive-Impulsive reference factor and the Inattention factor uniquely predicted preschool children's early academic skills. The degree to which the results applied across the primary groups in the sample (i.e., White versus Black/African American children, girls versus boys) was examined for measurement and structural models.

Weapon Carrying Among Boys in US Schools by Race and/or Ethnicity: 1993–2019

High adolescent gun-related mortality, gun violence, pro-gun policies, white supremacy, and the long-term socioeconomic and other effects of racial oppression are intricately linked in the United States. Racist prejudice depicts male individuals of color as more prone to criminality than white male individuals. We described long-term patterns of weapon carrying in US schools among non-Hispanic (NH) white, NH Black/African American, and Hispanic boys, hypothesizing that in contrast to racist stereotypes, boys of color did not bring weapons into schools more often than NH white boys in recent years. We conducted a time series analysis using 1993-2019 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System data comparing boys' self-reported weapon carrying in a nationally representative sample of US high schools by race and/or ethnicity, age, and self-reported experience of safety and violence at school. Weapon carrying in schools has declined among all boys. Comparing all schools, we found no significant differences in weapon carrying (4%-5%) by race and/or ethnicity in 2017 and 2019. Boys who reported experiencing violence or feeling unsafe at school were at least twice as likely to bring a weapon into school, and such negative experiences were more common among boys of color (8%-12%) than among NH white boys (4%-5%). In schools perceived as safer, NH white boys have been more likely to bring weapons into schools than NH Black/African American or Hispanic boys in the past 20 years. Our findings contradict racist prejudice with regard to weapon carrying in schools, particularly in more favorable school environments. Making schools safer may reduce weapon carrying in schools where weapon carrying is most common.

Association Between Parental Educational Attainment and Children's Negative Urgency: Sex Differences.

Negative urgency reflects a specific facet of impulsivity and correlates with a wide range of health-related risk behaviors, including, but not limited to, problematic substance use. Negative urgency is also shaped by family socioeconomic position (SEP), such as parental educational attainment (PEA). This study aimed to explore sex differences regarding protective effects of PEA on children's negative urgency in the US. This cross-sectional study used the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study data. Baseline ABCD data included 10,535 American children in the age range of 9-10 years old. The independent variable was PEA, treated as a 5-level categorical variable. The primary outcome was negative urgency measured by the Urgency, Premeditation, Perseverance, Sensation Seeking, Positive Urgency, Impulsive Behavior Scale (UPPS-SS). Mixed-effects regression models were applied for data analysis. In sex-stratified regression models, high PEA was predictive of lower levels of negative urgency in female but not male children. In the overall sample, sex showed a statistically significant interaction with PEA on children's negative urgency, indicating a stronger protective effect of high PEA for female compared to male children. PEA was a more salient determinant of negative urgency in female children than male ones. Our results also showed that American boys tend to have high levels of negative urgency, which is a risk factor of drug use, at all parental education levels.

Exploring Condom Use Behaviors Among African American Adolescent Boys in the Deep South.

Risky sexual behaviors among adolescents can increase adverse outcomes including unplanned pregnancy or contraction or transmission of disease. Adolescents who engage in risky sexual activities are at increased risk for adverse health and social outcomes compared to those who do not engage. Despite declines in adolescent pregnancy and birth rates, the diagnosis of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) is steadily increasing among adolescents. Moreover, African American adolescent boys in the United States, specifically in the southeastern region are disproportionally at greater risk for STIs, and STI diagnosis within this population has increased over time, compared to their white counterparts. This study sought to identify factors associated with condom use among adolescent boys in the Deep South. Using data from the Mobile Youth Survey, a longitudinal adolescent community-based survey, this study assessed the relationship between personal, behavioral, and environmental factors and condom use among African American adolescent boys (14–19 years). Younger participants (14–15 and 16–17) were more likely to use a condom during the last sexual intercourse compared to older participants (18–19 years). High positive attachment to boy/girlfriend was associated with increased condom use. The number of sexual partners, age at their first sexual encounter, recent sexual behavior, and having an STI were also associated with increased condom use among participants. The study provides further insights into factors associated with condom use among African American adolescent boys and results can inform the development of sexual health interventions.

Foregrounding Family: How Salvadoran American Boys Formulate College‐Going Mindsets at the Nexus of Family, School, and the Self

I investigated how two U.S.‐born Salvadoran eleventh grade boys formulated college‐going mindsets at the nexus of family‐based cultural influences, adolescent development, masculinity, and academic self‐appraisals. With asset‐based theories, findings show how immigrant families encouraged college going by shielding their sons from noneducational responsibilities and conveyed educational messages with words and deeds. Participants formulated mindsets by interpreting family‐ and school‐based messaging and weighing college going against gender‐based responsibilities. Implications for educational anthropologists and practitioners are provided.

The Role of NFA Camps in Agricultural Education for Rural African American Boys in North Carolina

The New Farmers of America (NFA) was a national organization existing from 1934 to 1965 when it merged with the National Future Farmers of America (FFA) Organization. S. B. Simmons, a leader in agricultural education throughout African American public schools, and early founder of the NFA, worked diligently to provide a place for rural African American boys to develop leadership, citizenship, sportsmanship, and moral values. This place existed in the form of a North Carolina NFA camp. Established in 1953, the North Carolina NFA Camp, located in Onslow County, saw boys from across the state for a week-long experience. The benefits of the camp branched further than simply learning to start a campfire or host a cookout. Later dedicated the S. B. Simmons Camp, rural African American boys benefited from leadership classes, recreational activities, and even public speaking opportunities to further develop themselves. Although no longer in existence, the morals imprinted in students at the S. B. Simmons Camp are ever apparent today at the remaining North Carolina FFA camp and throughout the National FFA Organization.

The Unedited Self: Fostering Subversive Imagination in Ministry with Boys and Young Men

This article draws from the life and work of George Bellows (1882–1925), a noted American painter at the turn of the twentieth century, in relation to his art instructor, Robert Henri (1865–1929), to envision pastoral relationships that foster spontaneous self-expression and the embrace of intrapsychic complexity in contemporary American boys and young men. It examines cultural trends and male psychosexual struggles that bolster undue self-screening at the expense of archaic, semiconscious desires to see and to be seen, to know and to be known. By identifying with artwork, artist, and art instructor, ministers or mentors aspire to evoke and enrich several facets of their own and their protege’s self-experience, designated here the unedited self, the unmanifested self, and the unencumbered self.

Changing the narrative on African American boys: A systemic approach to school success

Despite progress over the past decade in math and reading, proficiency scores of African American boys continue to trail behind those of White, Latino, and Asian male counterparts. African American boys’ reading and math disparities have been attributed to the negative portrayal and the pervasive deficit-oriented discourse about these young men. Using salient characteristics of organizational culture as a framework, this paper offers strategies for creating a culturally responsive environment that supports and promotes high academic performance among African American boys. Attention is given to policy, practice, personnel, programs, and process in schools and their role in culturally competent approaches for improving schools and individual academic achievement.

68.3 COLORING OUTSIDE THE LINES: MAKING BLACK AND BROWN LIVES MATTER IN THE PREVENTION OF YOUTH SUICIDE

Follow-up studies to the original 2015 article documenting increased suicidality continued to find a distinctive cultural shift in age-related racial/ethnic differences of childhood suicide, noting that rates were twice as high for the youngest (under 13 years old) African American children (boys and girls) compared to non-Hispanic White (NHW) children. With increasing data over the past several decades indicating that very young African American boys are at greater risk of self-harm, questions remain regarding the reasons behind this disturbing trend, particularly given that NHW same-age boys had decreases in their self-harm during this same period.

Body Composition, Physical Activity, and Convenience Food Consumption among Asian American Youth: 2011-2018 NHANES.

The primary purpose of this study was to describe obesity, body composition, convenience food consumption, physical activity, and muscle strength among Asian American youth compared to other racial/ethnic groups. The secondary purpose was to examine whether obesity, body composition, convenience food consumption, physical activity, and muscle strength differed by acculturation levels among Asian American youth. A secondary analysis was conducted using data from 12,763 children aged 2 to 17 years that participated in the 2011–2018 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). In the NHANES interview, acculturation, dietary behavior, and physical activity questionnaires were administered. The acculturation level was indicated by the language spoken at home. In the NHANES examination, anthropometry, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), and muscle strength assessments were conducted. Compared to non-Hispanic White American boys, Asian American boys had similar levels of obesity, central obesity, and fat mass. Among the five racial/ethnic groups examined, lean body mass, muscle mass, convenience food consumption, and daily physical activity were the lowest in the Asian group. More acculturated Asian American boys, but not girls, were more likely to be obese (OR = 3.28 (1.63, 6.60)). More acculturated Asian American youth more frequently consumed convenience food (1.4 more meals/month (1.2, 1.6)). This study highlights the obesity problem among Asian American boys, which worsens with acculturation to America. The study results also suggest that although Asian American youth consume less convenience food overall than non-Hispanic White American youth, increasing acculturation may negatively influence food choices.

The Role of Depressive Symptoms in Substance Use Among African American Boys Exposed to Community Violence.

Adolescents exposed to community violence (CV) are at increased risk for alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco use. The disproportionate exposure to CV among African American boys heightens their susceptibility to substance use and related problems. Depressive symptoms are linked to both CV exposure and adolescent substance use; however, their role in the link between CV exposure and substance use in African American male adolescents has received little attention. The current study examined whether depressive symptoms mediate or moderate the associations between CV exposure and substance use among African American male adolescents. Participants were 225 African American adolescent boys in Baltimore, Maryland who completed measures of CV exposure and depressive symptoms in 10th grade and measures of substance use in 10th and 11th grades. Hierarchal linear regression analyses indicated that depressive symptoms moderated associations between violent victimization and alcohol and tobacco use, R2 = .21-.30, ps < .001. There was a positive association between CV victimization and alcohol and tobacco use among those who reported high levels of depressive symptoms but not low levels. Depressive symptoms also moderated the link between witnessing CV and alcohol use such that witnessing CV was negatively related to alcohol use among those who reported high levels of depressive symptoms only. The findings suggest that depressive symptoms may play an important role in differentiating alcohol and tobacco use outcomes in CV-exposed African American boys. Prevention efforts should assess for depressive symptoms to identify adolescent boys with the highest risk of substance use.

“Black Boys: Invisible to Visible”: A Psychoeducational Group Fostering Self-Efficacy, Empowerment, and Sense of Belonging for African American Boys

ABSTRACT Far too often African American boys are negatively portrayed in the media and are labeled as at-risk and violent. These labels impact perceptions within public schools. They also decrease self-efficacy, lower academic motivation, and lessen attachment to the school and community. We conceptualized a psychoeducational group for African American adolescent boys, Black Boys: Invisible to Visible (BBI2V), aimed at improving these areas. BBI2V presents a group counseling curriculum focused on three themes: making positive choices, speaking one's truth, and developing personal worth. A case illustration is provided to examine how a student may benefit from the BBI2V experience. Implications for practitioners are provided.

Pubertal timing as a moderator between general discrimination experiences and self-esteem among African American and Caribbean Black youth.

The present study used a nationally representative sample of African American and Caribbean Black adolescents to examine whether relative pubertal timing moderated the relation between general and racial discrimination experiences and self-esteem. It was anticipated that discrimination experiences would be more harmful for early maturing African American and Caribbean Black girls and boys compared to their on-time and late counterparts. The participants included 1170 youth (e.g., 563 males and 607 females) from the National Survey of American Life-Adolescent (NSAL-A) who ranged in age from 13 to 17. Youth completed self-report measures of pubertal development, general and racial discrimination experiences, and self-esteem. Moderation was evident such that African American and Caribbean Black girls who perceived their pubertal development as early relative to their same-age and same-sex peers exhibited higher self-esteem than African American and Caribbean Black girls who perceived their development as late at high levels of general discrimination experiences. Moderation was not evident for racial discrimination experiences among African American and Caribbean Black girls, nor was it evident for general and racial discrimination experiences among African American and Caribbean Black males. The findings suggest that relative pubertal timing operates as a potential moderator for general discrimination experiences among African American and Caribbean Black girls. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

O22 BOUNCE: A Comprehensive Healthy Lifestyle Summer Program for Minority Adolescents and Parents

Background Low-income Latino and African American youth compared to their Caucasian counterparts are at increased risk for obesity. Objective The purpose of this study was to assess fidelity and efficacy of a summer community and family-based summer healthy lifestyle intervention named BOUNCE to reduce percent body fat by promoting healthy and mindful eating and physical activity engagement among Latino and African American youth. Study Design, Setting, and Participants We utilized a quasi-experimental pre-post group design. Ninety-four low-income Latio and African American boys and girls (M age = 10.6, SD age = 1.6) and primarily their mothers participated. Participating youth received 20 nutrition education sessions including cooking demonstrations, 20 psychoeducational sessions, and 60 exercise sessions (eg, yoga, kickboxing, and circuit training). In addition, parents were asked to participate in a 2-hour health workshop “platica” once per week. This workshop included nutrition basic education, cooking demonstration, and tips for parents to be more active as a family. University-based elementary school facilities (gym, classrooms, and cafeteria) were used to implement this intervention. Analysis Pre-and post-intervention participants completed demographic, physical activity, food frequency questionnaires, and wore an accelerometer for 7 days. Participants also had their body height measured using a stadiometer Seca 210 and body weight and percent body fat measured using a Tanita (TBS 310). Repeated ANCOVA was conducted to analyze the main effects of the intervention over time. Results At post-intervention, 60% exhibited a reduction of at least 0.5 cm of waist circumference. These children lost an average of 2.2% (SD = 1.6%) body fat, and 1.6 cm in waist circumference (SD = 3.6 cm). There was a 10% decrease in percent of time spent in sedentary behavior. Conversely, there was a 5% increase in percent of time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity. That is, on average, 46 minutes converted from sedentary behavior to moderate physical activity. Conclusion This study provides valuable information about the feasibility and efficacy of a summer comprehensive healthy lifestyle intervention targeting minority youth. Funding Aetna Foundation, United Health Foundation.

"Can I Live": Black American Adolescent Boys' Reports of Police Abuse and the Role of Religiosity on Mental Health.

State sanctioned violence aimed at Black individuals and communities is an issue that has pervaded American history and society since before the establishment of the United States. For Black males, anticipating and preparing for involuntary police contact, unfortunately, is an inevitable part of life. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of reports of police abuse on mental health and perceived racial out-group perceptions and the protective role of religiosity among a nationally representative sample of Black American adolescent boys (Mage = 14.98). Linear multiple regression was used to determine the interactive effects of subjective religiosity and reported police abuse on Black American adolescent boys. Higher reports of subjective religiosity were associated with lower depressive symptomatology. Reports of police abuse were associated with lower public regard beliefs (belief that society views Black Americans less favorably). Results highlight the impact experiencing police abuse has on Black adolescent boys and we conclude with implications, areas for future research and intervention points.

Demographic and Socioeconomic Predictors of Behavioral Trajectories from Age 3 to 15: A Longitudinal Mixed Effects Approach

Socioeconomically disadvantaged children face elevated risk for behavior problems. Greater understanding of the relationships between a range of socioeconomic factors and behavioral trajectories across childhood is needed to improve prevention efforts. The present study leveraged a large longitudinal survey to examine how gender, race, household socioeconomic status, and home environment influence behavior from early childhood to adolescence. Multivariate imputation by chained equations maximized available data across 12 years. Linear mixed effects models compared behavioral trajectories by gender, as well as the longitudinal effects of socioeconomic status on internalizing and externalizing behavior problems accounting for within- and between-child differences from age 3 to 15. Results indicated declines in both internalizing and externalizing scores over time. On average, boys displayed higher initial scores, but more rapid declines; by age 15, boys scored substantially lower than girls on internalizing problems, while externalizing scores were similar for both genders. Household income (βInternalizing = −0.02; βExternalizing = −0.01) and higher quality interior home environment (βInternalizing = −0.43; βExternalizing = −0.60) both protected against behavioral problems while perceived material hardship and exterior home environment had no effects. Gender moderated the effects of race and the interior environment on externalizing problems. Findings suggest unique developmental trajectories by gender whereby girls display more persistent internalizing problems and African American boys face highest risk for externalizing problems. Children in socioeconomically disadvantaged families face elevated risk for behavior problems, but the home environment remains an opportunity for prevention.