American Beliefs Research Articles

Constitutional Abortion and Culture

The U.S. Supreme Court’s abortion decisions over the past forty years have helped to shape cultural beliefs and practices concerning heterosexual relationships, marriage, and parenting. This is true both in the practical and in the legal senses. Practically speaking, definitively separating sex from childbearing, as only abortion can do (given how often contraception fails), inevitably changes the meaning of sex, and therefore of heterosexual relationships. Legally speaking, the Court’s influence was mediated significantly by its decision to locate the right of abortion in an area of constitutional law — substantive due process — which claims to contain only those rights that are indispensable to our national understanding of freedom, both at the level of the individual and respecting our overarching democratic order. In particular, over the course of forty years of abortion opinions, the Court’s reflections on a claimed link between abortion and freedom have led it to conclusions broadly reflected in modern American beliefs and practices insofar as sex, marriage, and parenting are concerned. These include, inter alia, a suspicion of motherhood on the grounds of its risks and harms, the dispensable roles and violent characters of men, the great importance of adults’ wishes, and the importance of sexual expression for individual identity, divorced from consequences for partners or children.

Understanding Latin American Beliefs about Racial Inequality

Scholars argue that Latin American ideologies of mestizaje, or racial mixing, mask ethnoracial discrimination. We examine popular explanations for indigenous or Afrodescendant disadvantage in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru using the 2010 AmericasBarometer survey. Findings show that numerical majorities across all countries endorse structural-disadvantage explanations and reject victim-blaming stances; in seven of eight countries, they specifically recognize discrimination against ethnoracial minorities. Brazilians most point to structural causes, while Bolivians are least likely to recognize discrimination. While educational status differences tend to be sizable, dominant and minority explanations are similar. Both are comparable to African-American views and contrast with those of U.S. whites.

One Nation under God: The Religious Right and the Separation of Church and State in the United States

In the increasingly polarised debate that is American politics, religion and religious belief has garnered a significant amount of attention in recent years, particularly `on the right-wing of the political spectrum. Despite the separation of Church and State expressly laid out in the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, many Republican politicians and faith-based organisations reject the idea of a secular United States and instead assert the supremacy of Judeo-Christian values in the American political discourse. This paper seeks to examine the activities of right-wing Christian political organisations, who oppose Church/State separation and their connections to U.S. politicians, as well as the deeper causes of the Religious Right’s staunch opposition to the Establishment Clause.

“Let's Talk about Sex” … In School

The Education of Eros by Dennis Carlson presents a comprehensive history of American sex education, from 1950 to 2010, presented through the wider historical and cultural lens of this period in American history. Framed through a series of societal “problems,” Carlson presents a history that demonstrates the impact of American life, politics, and belief systems on the sex education teens received in schools. Despite some challenges in organization, the text is well written, clear, and informative. Well referenced, this text is an excellent resource for readers interested in beginning research on one of the many topics taken up within the book.

Time is but the stream I go a-fishing in

This article investigates the representation of memory and dream in selected American TV serial fiction concentrating on 1990s shows that blended the real, the surreal and the supernatural. Departing from Northern Exposure, and moving on to Twin Peaks and The X Files, these shows embarked on an extensive use of vision, dream and memory themes to portray, I argue, negotiations between what Jan Assmann coined communicative and cultural memory (Jan Assmann 1995, 2010). While Twin Peaks and The X Files concentrated on the dark undercurrents or repressed forms of American belief and anxiety, Northern Exposure took a more benevolent route, re-imagining and rewriting alternative American aspirations of belief and coexistence. Key protagonists were portrayed as exiled individuals engaging with their pasts and the communities of which they became part of or estranged from while on roads to self-discovery. Carl Jung's writings formed an inspirational body of thinking for the shows, perhaps most explicitly in Northern Exposure, which also elaborated on Jungian visions of a shared humanity among the many differences inside and between humans. All shows elaborated on the consequences of opening oneself to dimensions of life that formed the shadows (Jung 1958, 1959), human duplex or doubling (Jung 1958), as well as the unused potential of imagination in Western modernity. Roads to self-discovery involving repressed or difficult memory work were also spelled out during the first seasons of a very different contemporary show, Mad Men. This show will be brought into discussion at the end of the article where I elaborate on the consequences of particular forms of American dreaming.

Abstract B85: Chinese American women's beliefs in mammogram.

Abstract Objectives: From the Theory of Planned Action (TPA), a woman's intention to have a mammogram can be determined by three factors: the woman's attitudes toward breast cancer screening, the social normative influence of the people who are important in her life, and her perception of the ease with having a mammogram. These determinants are from corresponding sets of beliefs. TPA posits that individual behavior is driven by behavioral intention. Thus, a woman's beliefs in mammogram will influence her intention toward screening, and eventually to carry out the behavior. The purpose of this study is to explore beliefs in mammogram among Chinese American women and to examine how these beliefs influence screening intention. Methods: A total of 212 participants were recruited from a homemaker program at a Chinese community-based organization located in the Midwest. Participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire on their beliefs in mammogram prior to an educational program on breast cancer screening. The questionnaire was developed by modifying Rakowski's Decisional Balance Scale on Mammography, which included six positive statements and six negative statements. A belief score was calculated by adding all 12 scores from each item. A higher belief score indicated that the participant has more positive beliefs. Screening behaviors were measured by asking participants whether they had a mammogram in the past 10 years, and whether they planned to have a mammogram in the next 1 to 2 years. Results: Sixty-two percent of the participants reported that they had a mammogram in the past 10 years and nearly 78% intended to have a mammogram within the next 1-2 years. Participants who were younger (p = .045) and who had more years of education (p = .039) were more likely to plan to have a mammogram in the next 1-2 years. The belief score was significantly associated with participants' history of breast cancer screening (p < .0005), yearly family income (p = .03) and years of education (p = .01). Both belief score and having a mammogram in the past significantly predicted the intention to have a mammogram in the next 1-2 years, and accounted for 25% (Cox & Snell) to 38% (Nagelkerke) of the variances. Even after considering for years of education and age, both predictors remained significant (p < .0005). Conclusion: Our study finds that Chinese American women's beliefs in mammogram not only had a significant impact on their past breast cancer screening but also their intention to have a mammogram in the future. Chinese American women who had more positive beliefs in mammogram were more likely to have a mammogram in the past 10 years and plan to have a mammogram in the next 1 – 2 years. Having a mammogram in the past and having more positive beliefs in mammogram significantly predicted the intention to have a mammogram, even after controlling for years of education and age. Citation Format: Helen Vallina, Karen Kim. Chinese American women's beliefs in mammogram. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Fifth AACR Conference on the Science of Cancer Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; 2012 Oct 27-30; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2012;21(10 Suppl):Abstract nr B85.

The faiths of the postwar presidents: from Truman to Obama

The Faiths of the Founding Fathers, an acclaimed look at the spiritual beliefs of such iconic Americans as Franklin, Washington, and Jefferson, established David L. Holmes as a measured voice in the heated debate over the new nation's religious underpinnings. With the same judicious approach, Holmes now looks at the role of faith in the lives of the twelve presidents who have served since the end of World War II. Holmes examines not only the beliefs professed by each president but also the variety of possible influences on their religious faith, such as their upbringing, education, and the faith of their spouse. In each profile close observers such as clergy, family members, friends, and advisors recall churchgoing habits, notable displays of faith (or lack of it), and the influence of their faiths on policies concerning abortion, the death penalty, Israel, and other controversial issues.

Findings from Focus Groups Indicating what Chinese American Immigrant Women Think about Breast Cancer and Breast Cancer Screening

To explore beliefs of Chinese American, immigrant women related to breast cancer and mammography. Qualitative description with semistructured focus groups. Metropolitan Portland, Oregon. Thirty eight foreign-born Chinese women, age 40 and older, in five focus groups. Focus group discussions in Chinese were audiotaped, transcribed, and translated into English. Using a process of directed content analysis, group transcripts were coded for themes based on the discussion guide. Three main themes emerged from the analysis: knowledge and beliefs; support, communication, and educational needs; and access to care. Subthemes included beliefs such as barriers and facilitators to screening and perceptions about personal breast cancer risk. Several women were profoundly affected by the negative breast cancer-related experiences of relatives and friends. Some common myths remain about causes and treatment of breast cancer. Although Chinese American immigrant women share beliefs with other minority women in the United States, some culturally related barriers such as alienation due to cultural reasons for not sharing diagnosis with anyone and beliefs about the efficacy of Eastern versus Western medicine may affect adherence to screening and treatment. Facilitators included being told to get the test and getting screened for the sake of the family, whereas erroneous information about the cause of breast cancer such as diet and stress remained. Primary care providers such as advanced practice nurses should take into account culturally driven motivations and barriers to mammography adherence among Chinese American immigrant women. Provider/client interactions should involve more discussion about women's breast cancer risks and screening harms and benefits. Such awareness could open a dialogue around breast cancer that is culturally sensitive and nonthreatening to the patient. Information may need to be tailored to women individually or targeted to subethnic groups rather than using generic messages for all Asian immigrant women.

Frances Willard's Peep at Finland

Abstract This article examines Frances Willard's first transatlantic tour of 1868–70, which played a key role in the development of her career. Her concern for improving the situation of women matured during her travels to European capitals and as far north as Helsinki, Finland. “A Peep at Finland” is one of the few travel articles that Willard published of the tour. In that article, she recorded her impressions of Finland's cities and their inhabitants. Her writing employs common travel-writing strategies, while her descriptions reflect dominant nineteenth-century American beliefs. After her tour, Willard became a prominent figure, working locally, nationally, and internationally within various reform organizations dedicated to women's causes. Her efforts to improve the situation of women are still recognized in countries like Finland.

The Influence of African American Elders' Belief Systems on Health Interactions

This qualitative article explores how African-American elders' cultural and religious belief systems informed elders' perceptions of: (a) healthcare encounters, (b) quality of healthcare received and, (c) relationships with providers. The descriptive study involved interviews with African American elders (N = 60), 60 years of age and older. Open-ended interview questions concerned elders' perceptions of how their age, gender, race, and belief systems impacted quality of healthcare interactions. Three interrelated themes linked elders' responses: (a) desire for connectedness, (b) sense of marginality, and (c) reliance on God and cultural traditions. Findings show the value of social workers designing assessments, programs, and interventions that qualitatively explore African American elders' beliefs. A qualitative exploration can use elders' own words to show the significance of their cultural and faith traditions in all aspects of their lives.

A Journey Through American Literature (review)

Reviewed by: A Journey Through American Literature Carol S. Loranger (bio) A Journey Through American Literature, by Kevin J. Hayes. New York: Oxford University Press: 2012. xvi + 220 pp. Paper, $17.95. This book represents a departure of sorts for Kevin J. Hayes, omnivorous Americanist, author of highly readable intellectual biographies of American figures such as Franklin and Jefferson, Melville and Poe, editor of essential companions to American literature and preeminent bibliographer. A Journey Through American Literature is just that: a topically arranged walk, with a knowledgeable and entertaining guide, through a varied landscape made from almost four centuries of American letters. The journey is neatly arranged by genre: travels, autobiography, short story, poetry, drama, and novel, with these chapters bracketed by an opening essay on "Beginnings" and a closing essay on "Endings." But within each chapter Hayes gives himself the latitude to wander into interesting byways, bringing the reader along. In the first twelve pages of "Beginnings," for example, he invites the reader to consider American literature's prevalent theme of identity through a wide-ranging catalogue of familiar opening lines from the nineteenth (Narrative of the Life of Arthur Gordon Pym, Moby Dick, Autobiography of Frederick Douglass, Huckleberry Finn, Leaves of Grass) and twentieth and twenty-first centuries (The Invisible Man, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, The Namesake). That the question of identity weaves itself through different and sometimes competing sets of American belief systems— consumerism, individualism, self-reliance— that are themselves pillars of the American Dream is the burden of the remainder of "Beginnings," which agilely tracks these systems through another dozen or so texts of all sorts from early Colonial to near-contemporary, plausibly and provocatively. If I spend so much time on "Beginnings" it is because this chapter sets the tone for those that follow. "Travels" begins with the reminder that "once the initial work of colonization had been completed, American authors could traverse the colonies less as explorers and more as urbane travelers." Among these early urbane travelers, Sarah Kemble Knight, William Byrd, and William Bartram penned influential literary accounts of journeys in the interior and abroad, preparing the way for homely and exotic travelers from Thoreau to Theroux. Westward expansion produced other and diverse kinds of travel writing from the multi-authored History of the Expedition Under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clark to first-hand accounts by men and women of travels along the Santa Fe, California, and Oregon trails and the exciting account by John Wesley Powell of his Exploration of the Colorado River. Among nineteenth century travelers [End Page 124] abroad Hayes gives pride of place to accounts by Henry James and Mark Twain, but he also manages to cast his eye upon less familiar travelers, or writers not primarily viewed as travel writers: Richard Henry Dana, William Wells Brown, John William DeForest, Nathanial Hawthorne, Lucy Bainbridge, Charles Dudley Warner, Herman Melville, George Kennan. In the twentieth century, Hayes reminds us, in addition to the homely travels of Steinbeck and the exotic excursions of Theroux, we may find the humble wpa guides for our states, written by the likes of Saul Bellow, Arna Bontemps, Eudora Welty, and Zora Neale Hurston. For Americans, travel is not a far reach conceptually from autobiography— we are a peripatetic people, and American lives and travels are inextricably bound up in the experience of racial contact and conflict that weaves its way through American history. Thus, in his chapter on autobiography and under the auspices of Franklin's pattern-setting autobiography, Hayes attends to America's wealth of captivity and slave narratives as well as autobiographies spiritual and secular and, curiously, "Jazz," all the while inviting the reader to ponder questions of authenticity in relation to autobiography and the autobiographer's self-conscious construction of identity in the terms of that dominant strain in American letters that Hayes laid out in "Beginnings." Each subsequent chapter performs the same operation upon its subject. And each chapter turns up nuggets— interesting juxtapositions of texts, many of them familiar but effectively defamiliarized by Hayes's bundling of them. Other, less familiar, items beg to be considered. As I read nearly every chapter I found myself wanting...

One for the road: drunk driving since 1900

Don't drink and drive. It's a deceptively simple rule, but one that is all too often ignored. And while efforts to eliminate drunk driving have been around as long as automobiles, every movement to keep drunks from driving has hit some alarming bumps in the road. Barron H. Lerner narrates the two strong-and vocal-sides to this debate in the United States: those who argue vehemently against drunk driving, and those who believe the problem is exaggerated and overregulated. A public health professor and historian of medicine, Lerner asks why these opposing views exist, examining drunk driving in the context of American beliefs about alcoholism, driving, individualism, and civil liberties. Angry and bereaved activist leaders and advocacy groups like Mothers Against Drunk Driving campaign passionately for education and legislation, but even as people continue to be killed, many Americans remain unwilling to take stronger steps to address the problem. Lerner attributes this attitude to Americans' love of drinking and love of driving, an inadequate public transportation system, the strength of the alcohol lobby, and the enduring backlash against Prohibition. The stories of people killed and maimed by drunk drivers are heartrending, and the country's routine rejection of reasonable strategies for ending drunk driving is frustratingly inexplicable. This book is a fascinating study of the culture of drunk driving, grassroots and professional efforts to stop it, and a public that has consistently challenged and tested the limits of individual freedom. Why, despite decades and decades of warnings, do people still choose to drive while intoxicated? One for the Road provides crucial historical lessons for understanding the old epidemic of drunk driving and the new epidemic of distracted driving.

Populism—Bringing Culture Back In

Populism—Bringing Culture Back In

Elementary Teachers’ Beliefs of African Americans in the Mathematics Classroom

The underlying theme of the Equity Principle in the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM, 2000) is all students can learn mathematics. Unfortunately, many African American students are consistently demonstrating low mathematical achievement and many educators refuse to acknowledge racial inequities faced by African Americans in the mathematics classroom. In this qualitative study, twelve elementary mathematics teachers from four school districts in the Midwest are interviewed about their beliefs about teaching African American students and teaching mathematics to African American students. The teachers in this study believe African American students can and do succeed in mathematics, which is contrary to the belief held by some educators that African American students cannot do outstanding work. The findings in this study reveal that mathematics teachers need productive beliefs specifically related to African American students, how African American students learn, and effective teaching practices for African American students in order to teach mathematics through an equitable lens.

“Rumble in the Jungle”: Muhammad Ali vs. George Foreman in the Age of Global Spectacle

Abstract This essay explores the domestic and international implications of the 1974 title match between Ali and Foreman in Zaire. Beamed across the world via satellite, the bout was a global spectacle of Black Power and Black Nationalism. Ali was a pan-African star whose Islamic religion and opposition to the Vietnam War made him a global champion in an era of colonial rebellion. The bout also dramatized the crumbling civil rights consensus in the black community, as Ali embodied Black Nationalism and sixties rebellion, while Foreman defended the establishment and liberal civil rights. His flag-waving gesture during the 1968 Mexico City Olympics, made him a patriotic counter to black rebels in sport and a rescuer of an American belief in its national exceptionalism. Pan-African star Ali took advantage of the African setting to win over the African masses, who rooted for him as an anti-colonial hero.

Violent and peaceful crowd reactions in the Middle East: cultural experiences and expectations

Collective honor in Middle Eastern crowds may serve as an important basis for both conflict and conflict resolution between security forces and crowd members. To investigate this issue, we extended a social–cognitive model of crowd behavior to account for the role of honor in social identities and relations, and tested the model in two studies. In Study 1, we collected critical incidents representing crowd experiences in the Middle East. The interview data were coded to include security actions that escalate force and those that generate understanding or exhibit restraint. Study 2 used a scenario-based interview procedure to test the hypothesis that Middle Eastern civilians and Americans with no Middle Eastern cultural experience hold differing beliefs and expectations about crowd reactions to security force actions. The results showed that escalation of force against the crowd led to an increase in the level of conflict more often than not, whereas attempting to understand the crowd or exhibiting restraint tended to decrease conflict. Middle Eastern expectations were largely congruent with these findings, whereas American beliefs diverged. The results have implications regarding the cultural and cognitive determinants of crowd behavior, and for the management of crowds by regional governments and in international peacekeeping situations.

Abstract A19: Development and pilot testing of a culturally appropriate intervention on biospecimen research among Chinese Americans

Abstract Background: There is a paucity of information on recruitment of Asian Americans for biospecimen research. Although studies show that Chinese Americans are at high risk for hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, there are neither published studies focused on examining the impact of psychosocial and cultural factors on HBV biospecimen research among this population, nor educational interventions undertaken to increase the knowledge of and changes in attitudes toward greater participation in biobanking research among this large subset of the Asian populations. Objective: The purpose of this study was to develop and test the feasibility and effectiveness of a culturally and linguistically appropriate education on HBV-related biospecimen research participation among Chinese American population in Philadelphia. Methods: Guided by the theoretical framework of the Health Belief Model (HBM) and Community-Based participatory Research (CBPR) principles, mixed research methods of qualitative and quantitative studies were used. Two focus groups with Chinese community lay members (n=20) and 8 in-depth interviews with Chinese community leaders who represent four Chinese CBOs were conducted to have a better understanding of Chinese American cultural beliefs, attitudes, perceived barriers and intentions to participate in hepB biospecimen research, as well as receive recommendations for developing and implementing a culturally appropriate education intervention from the perspectives of both Chinese community leaders and lay members. For the pilot study, 2-arm quasi-experimental design with pre- and post education intervention assessments was used. Eight study sites will be recruited: four will be assigned to intervention group and four to control group. Approximately a total of 320 participants will be enrolled into the study. Results: The qualitative results showed that 40% of the participants indicated that blood donation may be harmful to one's health. Participants expressed that if the research impact has direct benefit relevant to them or their community, they would be more willing to participate. About one-third of the participants expressed willingness to donate blood for future HBV biospecimen research for the reason of advancing science. All participants stated that culturally appropriate education is important and suggested that the education program should be carried out in collaboration with community leaders in order to achieve its success. The pilot testing of the education program is planned to complete in November 2011. A multidisciplinary team was established. The preliminary data showed potential success in increasing knowledge of, changing attitudes toward and intention to participation in future HBV biospecimen research among Chinese Americans. Implications: Findings from the focus groups and in-depth interviews with community leaders and members provided us with profound insights for developing culturally appropriate intervention to increase biospecimen research participation among Chinese Americans. This pilot study is expected to yield new data on the intervention effects, which leads to a solid foundation for future large-scale controlled intervention trials in the Chinese American and other Asian populations. Citation Information: Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2011;20(10 Suppl):A19.

Still Waters Run Deep: The Complexities of African-American Identities and Political Attitudes

In this paper we argue that the conventional narrative of homogeneity in black public opinion masks variation in the attitudes individual blacks hold about their own communities, personal identities, and their sense of class-consciousness. Utilizing the 2008 CAAPS/ABC News Black Politics Survey, this analysis shows how core American beliefs undermine racial group solidarity while experiences of racial discrimination and feelings of political marginality reinforce communal values among African Americans. The analysis also documents sharp divides among African Americans regarding preferences for national versus racial identities, individual versus communal beliefs, and social class versus racial group attachments. Our analysis reveals that these divides in black opinion over the primacy of identities are conditioned by various factors, specifically the frequency of personal experiences with racial discrimination, attitudes toward racial identity, social class standing, residency in majority black neighborhoods, and financial security. We conclude by discussing the broader implications of heterogeneity in black public opinion for understanding American public opinion wit large.

Implicit Nationalism as System Justification: The Case of the United States of America

America as a nation has self-perpetuating needs that do not always align with the needs or beliefs of individual Americans. As much as Americans may love their country and way of life, they do not always explicitly agree with the policies that best serve to bolster and perpetuate the nation, such as unyielding diplomatic stances, unilateral military action, or giving up civil liberties in exchange for security. How then does a country with such diverse explicit opinions maintain its national power structures and the support of the populace? System justification theory contends that members of a system have an implicit motive to justify and bolster that system (Jost, Banaji, & Nosek, 2004). Based on recent work on the implicit nationalism, we argue that the types of information that become associated with the nation in memory are the same types of information that help bolster and perpetuate the American system. In the present study, we find that a subtle reminder of America increases system justification for those with some moderate exposure to the political media, regardless of their explicit ideology. We argue that the implicit activation of information associated with America ultimately serves a nationalistic function, and more broadly, the system justification motive.

Toward a Native American Theology of Animals: Creek and Cherokee Perspectives

Toward a Native American Theology of Animals: Creek and Cherokee Perspectives Dave Aftandilian Introduction In this article, I will explore what a Native American theology of animals might look like, and how it might inform work on animal theology in other faith traditions. After a brief review of previous work on this topic, I discuss the roles of animals in Native American creation stories and cosmologies; the recognition of animals as people; the spiritual powers of animals; and the proper practical and spiritual roles of humans in relation to other animals.1 Such an exploration, of course, assumes that one can speak of “theology” among people who do not necessarily believe in a supreme deity in the Christian sense. Following the practice of Clara Sue Kidwell, Homer Noley, and George Tinker, who are themselves all Native American, and who published a book on Native American theology recently (Kidwell et al. 2001), I argue that one can indeed speak of Native American theology, so long as two important caveats are kept in mind. First, Native American spiritual beliefs vary by tribe and by individual, so that one cannot develop a single overarching “Native American theology,” of animals or anything else. For that reason, I have chosen to focus this essay on the spiritual beliefs and practices regarding animals of two Southeastern tribes, the Muskogee Creek and the Cherokee (although I will also mention more generally held Native American beliefs from time to time). Both the Creek and the Cherokee once shared traditional lands in northern Georgia, and after they were forcibly removed from those lands and their other traditional territories throughout the Southeast by the U.S. government in the 1830s and 1840s, they were allotted neighboring reservations in northeastern Oklahoma (Swanton 1952/1969, 104‐116, 299‐300). Both tribes historically practiced a similar mix of farming, hunting, gathering, and fishing in terms of their subsistence (Hudson 1976, 258ff), and also have long shared many stories and spiritual beliefs regarding animals. To highlight the fact that Creek and Cherokee peoples and their cultures are alive and well today, I have drawn on contemporary sources for this article whenever possible. Second, Native American spiritual beliefs have traditionally been shared orally, through sacred stories which non‐natives have often called “myths.” Therefore, rather than focusing on biblical texts, as many theological studies do, I will instead focus on sacred stories. (Because Native American people regard their stories of the sacred time before time as true, rather than fictional as is implied by the term “myth,” I prefer to refer to these as “sacred stories”; see also Gill 1989, 157‐158.) Before we begin, I want to highlight some of the most important foundations upon which Creek, Cherokee, and other Native American theologies of animals are built. First and foremost, native theologies of animals are based on observation and experience with real animals (for Creek, see Chaudhuri and Chaudhuri 2001, 6, 12; for Cherokee, see Duncan 1998, 203‐205; see also Kawagley 2006, 16‐17). On the one hand, this focus on close observation of real animals stems from a deep curiosity about and concern for the animal peoples with whom we share the world. But on the other hand, traditionally, native peoples have also watched animals closely and tried to understand them because they were deeply dependent upon the animals for both physical sustenance and spiritual knowledge and power. Overview of previous work related to Native American animal theology Because theology has traditionally been done in Christian and sometimes Jewish contexts, there has been relatively little work on theology among Native Americans. A key exception is the book A Native American Theology, which was written by three Native American scholars (Kidwell et al. 2001). However, despite the crucial importance of animals in the spiritual beliefs of Native American peoples throughout the Americas (whether they have practiced primarily hunting and fishing or farming), past and present, Kidwell et al. do not address the topic of animal theology among Native Americans in this work, nor do they include a chapter on animal‐related spiritual beliefs. Indeed, I am not aware of any other substantive treatments of Native American animal theology. Of course, many scholars have...