American Association Of Anatomists Research Articles

Peter Satir (1936–2022), cell biology pioneer and mentor

Peter Satir (1936–2022), cell biology pioneer and mentor

Professor David Brynmor Thomas

Professor David Brynmor Thomas

Neck Muscle Morphology and Function in Primates

The cervical spine lies at intersection between the cranium and postcranium and plays a crucial role in orienting the head relative to the substrate during locomotion. Previous work demonstrates that bony features of the cranial base and cervical spine are related to positional behavior in primates. How soft tissues of the neck vary across primate taxa is relatively unknown yet is critical for understanding function, head carriage, and locomotion in this clade. The objective of this study was to describe the relationship between the extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of the neck and postural and locomotor behaviors in primates. We collected and dissected 26 primate cadavers from 17 different genera representing each major primate clade. We hypothesized that trunk and neck posture, as well as forelimb dominated below‐branch suspensory behaviors and neck rotational capabilities all influence the attachment sites and size of the dorsal neck musculature.Using gross anatomical dissection, we qualitatively described and compared the attachment sites of the dorsal neck, back, and shoulder muscles of taxa that display contrasting behaviors and quantified muscle mass. Using the dissection data combined with contrast enhanced microCT data, we constructed 3D models of the head and neck to visualize the in situ neck muscle attachment sites for Propithecus, Aotus, and Carlito.Gross anatomical dissections demonstrate that among nonhuman apes, hylobatids lack cranial attachments of the trapezius and rhomboideus. Additionally, strepsirrhines display anatomy that is more nonprimate mammal‐like in the distribution of the trapezius, rhomboideus, and semispinalis muscles. Results of phylogenetic regressions indicate that neck muscle masses are best predicted by body size, but also demonstrated significant results for both postural and locomotor behaviors as predictors of overall muscle mass (p < 0.05). This study represents the first comprehensive description of the functional anatomy of the neck muscles across primates. Future work will focus on quantifying biomechanically‐relevant variables such as physiological cross‐sectional area using novel fascicle‐tracking methods and estimating muscle moments to compare across taxa.Support or Funding InformationThis work was funded by the Leakey Foundation, National Science Foundation, American Association of Anatomists, Western University of Health Sciences, and University of Missouri.

Disentangling The Heterogeneity Of The Midfacial Epithelium To Elucidate The Pathogenesis Of Cleft Lip/Palate

Craniofacial development results from a tightly regulated choreography involving patterning, morphogenesis, and growth of multiple embryonic tissues and cell types. Clefts of the lip and/or palate (CL/P) are maiming disruptions of facial shape and represent the most common human craniofacial birth defect. During mammalian facial development, the maxillary prominence extends medially to contact the two nasal prominences (medial and lateral) at a three‐way anatomical seam named lambdoidal junction (λ), wherein the three prominences coalesce. When fusion of the facial prominences is impaired, orofacial clefting ensues. We have previously reported an essential role for the cephalic epithelium at the λ to enable normal fusion of the murine embryonic facial prominences. Using the mouse as a model, I am currently studying the spatial and temporal characteristics of these epithelial subpopulations using single‐cell RNAseq (scRNAseq) on microdissected facial prominences prior and after fusion occurs. By this approach, I have identified the transcriptional profiles that characterize the different epithelial subpopulations at the λ. Employing different bioimaging and fate mapping techniques, I am characterizing the cell behaviors and trajectories of selected λ epithelial subpopulations. In parallel, I am also conducting these analyses directly comparing control and mutant mouse embryos obtained from available genetic mutant lines with orofacial clefting (Pbx1/2 compound mutants). These studies have identified key changes in both transcriptomic signatures and cell behaviors in mutant mouse embryos, providing a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of CL/P. Altogether, these approaches are helping me to elucidate the spatiotemporal dynamics of the cell subpopulations that comprise the λ epithelium in vivo, and the perturbed landscapes that cause disfiguring anomalies of the facial anatomical features in mammals.Support or Funding InformationThis work was funded by the National Institute of Health [RO1 grant DE024745 to L.S] and by the American Association of Anatomists [Postdoctoral Fellowship to M.L.].

First Systematic Documentation of Sex Differences in Craniofacial Norms of Nigerian Children

Datasets containing standardized craniofacial measurements in African children are not widely available. Such datasets are needed to establish craniofacial norms and document patterns of normal growth, which are often population specific. In this cross‐sectional study we used traditional calipers to collect 13 standard anthropometric measurements on 320 male (n=172) and female (n=148) children from Sokoto, Nigeria with mean age of 38.39 and 37.34 months, respectively. The study participants were divided into eight different age groups: 6–12; 12–18; 18–24; 24–30; 30–36; 36–48; 48–60 and 60–72 months. ANOVA was used to test for sex differences within the age groups. Our results revealed statistically significant sex differences in craniofacial morphology at each age group, except the 12–18 month old subset. The greatest number of sexually dimorphic measures was observed in the 30–36 month and 36–48 month age groups. Through 60 months, the means of measurements that showed significant sex differences were universally larger in females than in males. By the 60–72 month group, mean values for sexually dimorphic traits were larger in males. This is consistent with reports in other cohorts showing a more accelerated rate of craniofacial growth in females during early postnatal growth that begins to level off during childhood. This study provides the first systematic documentation of sex differences in craniofacial variation in typical growing Nigerian children, increasing our understanding of craniofacial growth changes across different age groups in relation to sexual dimorphism. This information can be used by Nigerian clinicians and other health care givers to further understand craniofacial growth and morphology of Nigerian children, and serves as baseline data for the creation of a local craniofacial database that will facilitate diagnosis of craniofacial anomalies and overall patient management.Support or Funding InformationThe author(s) hereby acknowledge the support of the American Association of Anatomists (AAA) through the Short‐term Visiting Scholarship Award to the Laboratory of Dr. J.T. Richtsmeier, Pennsylvania State University, PA, USA as well as the Management of the Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, for the Staff Training and Development Fellowship Approval/Award (TETFund).This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

How comparative anatomy provides insight into human anatomy

Human anatomy instructors in the United States have remarkably varied backgrounds for an academic discipline; we work alongside those trained at every scale of biological organization, from molecular genetics to ecology, and these different training regimens provide anatomy departments with a variety of strengths. In this talk, I outline and detail how comparative whole organism anatomy can be useful in teaching human anatomy, primarily in the context of traditional lectures (at both the undergraduate and graduate levels) through three broad categories. First, understanding how relatively anatomically more complex animals like humans develop embryologically is facilitated by appreciating the anatomy of relatively simpler animals like platyhelminth and annelid worms; furthermore, some developmental defects are better understood through the lens of evo‐devo (i.e., normal conditions in other animals are sometimes abnormal conditions in humans, like syndactyly in bats). Second, comparative functional biomechanics yields insight into normal and abnormal musculoskeletal function. The trade‐offs between joint stability or flexibility, or power arm ratios for power or speed, are well‐illustrated by extreme morphology of homologous structures in other animals, such as the incredibly speedy ankles of cheetahs compared to the relatively powerful ankles of humans. Third, much of any scientific professional's development relies upon mastery of Greek‐ and Latin‐derived vocabulary; genus and species names of animals can help anatomy students better remember structural terms. For example, Pterodactylus was a remarkable genus of flying reptiles, and understanding the etymology of the Greek words “pteron” (wing) and “dactyl” (finger) helps students appreciate how the sphenoid bone's pterygoid process and the pterygoid muscles are wing‐shaped, and the clinical conditions syndactyly and polydactyly refer to webbed or conjoined fingers and extra fingers, respectively.Application of human anatomy knowledge by physicians to animals gave rise to the field of comparative anatomy in the 1600s; Edward Tyson, a human physician, recognized chimpanzees were more like humans than monkeys, and porpoises were more like land mammals than fish from detailed comparative gross dissections. These observations of patterns in the anatomy of humans and animals contributed to Darwin and Wallace independently developing the theory of evolution, which underpins the national One Health initiative. Recognizing humanity's shared ancestry with animals ensures a measure of shared descendance in the instruction of human and animal anatomical education.Support or Funding InformationThis work was supported by the American Association of Anatomists and the Arkansas College of Osteopathic Medicine.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

The Implementation and Outcomes of a Novel Exam Analysis Tool in an Introductory Anatomy and Physiology Course

Anatomy and Physiology (A&P) is a foundational course series for most health professions. Students taking A&P commonly struggle to attain the grades necessary to continue in their plan of study. Strategies to retain students in these courses vary. Research examining the frequency, structure, and outcomes of reviewing examination results with students is limited. Allowing a student to view results of an exam may or may not benefit the student on future exams without careful consideration of exam preparation strategies and how students approached the examination questions. The purpose of this investigation is to describe the findings of a novel exam analysis tool in an introductory Anatomy and Physiology course, and determine if the completion of a midterm exam analysis appointment inmproves performance on the final exam. The Drexel University Institutional Review Board approved this retrospective study in March 2018, IRB Protocol number 801006007. There are two exams in the Anatomy and Physiology I course, a midterm and a final, each worth 30% of the final grade. Immediately after the midterm examination concluded, all 248 students in the Anatomy and Physiology I course were invited via email to sign up for 30-minute exam review appointments with the instructor. Appointments were conducted in small groups of 1–3 students. Each student completed an exam analysis form created by the instructor. For each question missed, the student was asked to identify the content/topic area and the reason they felt they answered the question incorrectly from dropdown lists of options. Students were provided with the Bloom's Taxonomy level for each question. On each completed analysis, the instructor and student identified the three most common reasons exam questions were missed, the proportion of Bloom's level questions (1, 2 or 3+) that they missed, and the top three content areas in which they missed the most questions. Examination review appointments are still underway. Data analysis will conclude after final exams are completed in December. The most commonly cited reasons for missing exam questions, the distribution of missed questions on Bloom's taxonomy, and the most difficult content areas will be provided. Correlational analyses will be performed to determine the relationship between exam score, Bloom's level, and reasons for missed questions. Finally, the final exam scores of students who did complete midterm exam reviews will be compared to those who did not. It is expected that completing the midterm exam analysis form will result in improved final exam scores, and that students who do not complete exam review appointments will not have the same improvement. Findings from this study may benefit instructors who are seeking a tool to help students better understand their performance. If there is a relationship between grades and common reasons for missing an examination question, instructors may use this information to create targeted remediation strategies for their students. Support or Funding Information Travel support for attending the annual meeting of Experimental Biology is being provided by the American Association of Anatomists, as part of the receipt of a Visiting Scholar Award. This exam analysis tool will be completed by each student who makes an appointment to review midterm exam results. This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Imaging Bioluminescent Exogenous Stem Cells in the Intact Guinea Pig Cochlea.

ABSTRACTStem‐cell‐based therapy may be used to replace damaged or lost neurons in the cochlear nerve of patients suffering from severe‐to‐profound sensorineural hearing loss. In order to achieve functional recovery in future clinical trials, knowledge about survival of grafted cells and their differentiation into functional neurons is a prerequisite. This calls for non‐invasive in vivo visualization of cells and long‐term monitoring of their survival and fate after cochlear transplantation. We have investigated if molecular optical imaging enables visualization of exogenous cells in the intact cochlea of guinea pig cadaver heads. Transduced (stem) cells, stably co‐expressing fluorescent (copGFP) and bioluminescent (Luc2) reporter molecules, were injected into the internal auditory meatus or directly into the cochlea through the round window. After injection of the cells into the internal auditory meatus, a bright bioluminescent signal was observed in the cavum conchae of the auricle, indicating that light generated by Luc2 is passing through the tympanic membrane and the external auditory meatus. Similar results were obtained after injection of the cells through the round window membrane, either directly into the scala tympani or in Rosenthal's canal within the modiolus of the basal cochlear turn. Imaging of the auditory bulla demonstrated that the bioluminescent signal passes through the tympanic membrane and crevices in the bony wall of the bulla. After opening the auditory bulla, the bioluminescent signal was emanating from the round window. This is the first study demonstrating that bioluminescence imaging enables visualization of luciferase‐expressing cells injected into the intact guinea pig cochlea. Anat Rec, 303:427–440, 2020. © 2019 The Authors. The Anatomical Record published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of American Association of Anatomists.

Internationalization of Medical Education: Collaborations Initiated through the American Association of Anatomists (AAA) and the Anatomical Society (AS) Meetings Lead to Successful International Educational Partnerships

BackgroundInternational collaborations are very important for successful internationalization of medical education (IoME) projects. We have previously reported our experience in IoME within the Anatomy course, using international small group peer‐to‐peer and student exchanges. In this follow‐up study we have expanded our project to include more countries, along with making changes to the international conference. We now include two partner schools that became involved through connections initiated at the AAA 2016 meeting and the AS meeting in 2017.MethodPreclinical Anatomy students (medical and dental) from 6 different countries participated in 5 video conferencing sessions, including one large international student videoconference. The above was followed by international student exchanges ‐ involving basic sciences summer internships. Partner countries/schools included the USA (Columbia University, New York), Germany (Martin Luther University, Halle‐Wittenberg), Japan (Kyoto University, Kyoto), Canada (McGill University, Montreal), Finland (University of Helsinki, Helsinki), and Taiwan (National Taiwan University, Taipei).The relationships between the partner schools were made possible via interpersonal connections ‐ two of the schools became involved following presentations at the AAA meeting and the AS meeting, and subsequent communication between representatives of the institutions involved.Results110 students in 6 countries participated in this project, consisting of 20 small groups. To date, 23 students have indicated an interest in visiting their peers during the summer (2018), while conducting research fellowships in the host country ‐ 13 students from the USA, and 10 students from partnering countries.Two countries (i.e., Canada and Finland) that were not previously part of the program were included following connections made during the AAA meeting and the AS meeting. These countries have become popular destinations for student internships – so far, 4 students from the USA will be interning in Finland and 1 will intern in Canada. 2 students from Finland are scheduled to intern in the USA, 1 Canadian student will intern in Japan and another Canadian student will intern in the USA.In addition, following our presentation at the AS meeting in 2017 a new partnership with the United Kingdom was formed, and collaborative efforts are underway.Results from student feedback on this year's project are still pending.Without the AAA and AS meetings the additional partnerships would not have been possible, since recruitment of new partner schools has proven to be challenging without interpersonal connections. Therefore, professional societies such as the AAA and the AS (and their meetings) are important resources for collaboration and long‐term professional partnerships – benefiting students, teachers, and institutions.Support or Funding InformationNoneThis abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Evaluating Three‐dimensional (3D) Digital Models of Anatomical Variations as Assessment Tools for Undergraduate and Graduate Anatomy Education

IntroductionFor medical and allied health students, knowledge of anatomical variation is important as it may influence physical examination, diagnosis and treatment of patients. Recent studies indicate anatomical variation should be conceptually integrated early into the anatomy curriculum prior to the discipline specific variations taught in surgical and radiological postgraduate training programs. For academic institutions with limited access to cadaveric dissection and anatomy museums, the opportunity for students to appreciate the range of normality in anatomical structures is diminished. Thus, the purpose of this study was to demonstrate how 3D models of anatomical variations may be used to assess structure, function and spatial relationships by incorporating the concept of anatomical variations into assessment paradigms.MethodsTwo 3D digital models depicting upper limb muscular variations, and a 3D teratological model were evaluated by undergraduate kinesiology (KIN) (n = 30), and graduate clinical anatomy (CA) (n = 10) students. The study protocol consisted of the following instruments introduced in sequence: (1) 30‐question Spatial Ability Test (SAT), (2) 16‐question baseline upper limb anatomy test, (3) 13‐question multiple choice quiz based on the displayed 3D models, and (4) Student perception survey (5‐point Likert scale). Based on SAT scores, a median split was used stratify the students into high (KIN: 15, CA: 5) and low spatial ability (KIN: 15, CA: 5). All data are presented as Mean ± SD.ResultsBoth student groups scored similarly on the baseline anatomy knowledge test (KIN: 71 ± 17 %, CA: 71 ± 12%). The mean 3D model quiz scores for KIN students of high spatial ability were 72 ± 16% compared to those of lower spatial ability, 68 ± 14%. The 3D model quiz scores for CA students of high spatial ability were 88 ± 12% compared to CA students of lower spatial ability, 77 ± 15%. The models were perceived as useful in assessing spatial relationships (KIN: 4.4 ± 0.8, CA: 4.9 ± 0.3) and clinical concepts (KIN: 4.0 ± 0.9 CA: 3.9 ± 0.3). Student perceptions were positive for integrating the 3D models into lecture, or laboratory discussions, but KIN students were relatively neutral (3.2 ± 1.2) compared to CA students (3.9 ± 0.3) in their integrated use in bell‐ringer style laboratory assessments. The students expressed interest for a database of explorable 3D models of anatomical variations.ConclusionIntegration of the 3D variant models into anatomy curricula could be a useful means in assessing fundamental anatomical concepts, while demonstrating how deviations in structure can affect normal function. For institutions with computer access but limited cadaveric resources, the 3D models could be powerful supplementary teaching and assessment tools for anatomy students of all education levels and spatial abilities. Furthermore, development of a database of explorable anatomical variations for teaching and learning purposes would be valuable for allied health and medical programs in search of integrating variant anatomy into their anatomy curricula.Support or Funding InformationSupported by: American Association of Anatomists (AAA) Education Research Scholarship; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Quantifying the Genotype to Phenotype Map in Developing Mice

ObjectiveQuantify phenotypic variance of face shape within mice after ablation of the gene encoding the E3 ubiquitin ligase, nitric oxide synthase‐interacting protein (Nosip).MethodsMouse embryos from a nitric oxide synthase‐interacting protein (NOSIP) knock‐out model were collected at e12.5 via cesarean section (n=39). Two‐dimensional images were taken of the head, and DNA was collected from the limb bud for genotyping via PCR. Additionally, skulls were collected post‐natally (23 – 263 days of age (n=25)), and were scanned via microCT (55kV, 0.2 second integration time, 145uA). Anatomical landmarks were manually placed along the skull, creating three‐dimensional coordinates. Data were corrected for rotation and scaling differences through a Procrustes transformation using MorphoJ. Standard geometric morphometric analyses were subsequently performed, and data were compared using principal components analyses (PCA).ResultsAll wildtype (WT) embryos appeared to have normal phenotypes (n=8), but there was a large phenotypic variation in mutants (Fig. 1), ranging from normal (n=19) to severe forebrain malformations (n=7) or resorption (n=6). Adult HET mice (n=9) also showed phenotypic variation, including lateral malocclusion (n=1), opaque eyes (n=4), or no eyes present (n=1). After correcting for skull size, there was minimal variation within the WT adults, but there was specific separation between HETs with normal phenotypes and abnormal phenotypes. Animals were separated by PC1 (left‐side of snout width asymmetry; 24.5% of total variation) and PC2 (snout length; 16.3% of total variation) (Fig. 2). Along the PC1 axis, three HETs are clustered within the WTs; however, PC2 separates the two HETs with an abnormal phenotype (no eyes and lateral malocclusion), while the remaining HET within the WT cluster has a normal phenotype. Visualizing the same PCA relative to sex does not distinguish unique clusters, suggesting that phenotype is not related to sex.ConclusionsThis model presents a unique opportunity to understand and study phenotypic variation within a HET genotype, as well as when comparing HETs to WTs, producing variation in both embryos and adults. The malformations present in the HET embryos resembles a sonic‐hedgehog loss‐of‐function phenotype, so more work will be performed to determine the affected signaling pathways and cellular processes.Support or Funding InformationTravel support was given by the American Association of Anatomists. This project is supported by NIH funding (R01DE01823, R01DE01963,R01DE021708).This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

“For of those to whom much is given…”

On January 9, 1961, some weeks before being inaugurated the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy exhorted the Massachusetts State Legislature, “For of those to whom much is given, much is required.” His words, internationally distributed, gave new platform and audience to the Biblical message from Luke (KJV, 12:48) from whence it came. Kennedy would often return to versions of this ancient missive in speeches during his all‐too‐brief time as President.This historical admonition speaks not only to those benefited by material wealth or comfort; he was pointedly addressing those placed at the nexus of sacred opportunities and those they would influence. Indeed, a theme throughout Kennedy's life was his passionate transmission of the existential need for giving and giving back. The most well known of his quotes, forcefully spoken through the cold January air at his inauguration,“…ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country,” epitomizes his world‐view of the centrality of service to your home and the greater good.We in the academic world, particularly those of us given the gift of sharing the core science of anatomy sensu lato, have much: we have learned from caring teachers who stimulated our careers; have been afforded great freedom to explore science without many limitations; have unfettered openness through our journals and forums; and have been allowed to share our thoughts with bright, eager, and pure minds at the outset of their journey. The pressures of our daily world ‐ grants, curricular changes, a seemingly never‐ending ladder of administrators – can at times jade our spirit and dull our senses to the dual obligations we hold: to serve our science and mentor those who have knocked at our door. To paraphrase President Kennedy, perhaps we should focus a bit more on what we can do for the future of our discipline and those who will carry the torch then sit in expectation or disappointment of what we should have received. We have, indeed, been given much; good service to our next generation is a blessing in return, not a burden.(American Association of Anatomists A.J. Ladman Award Symposium Lecture).This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Analysis of Anatomy Education Based Job Openings

Due to the increasing demand of healthcare educators, the necessity of programs with integration of pedagogy with healthcare sciences is imminent. However, there are relatively few programs integrating anatomy courses and pedagogical programs. By analyzing the current job market, professional programs can gain a sense of the need for anatomy professional graduates capable of teaching in a variety of areas. This study looked to provide a current job scope of the positions related to anatomy education. Data were gathered from open job descriptions over a one year timeframe. Sources for these anatomy‐related jobs and careers in higher academia came from open positions listed on the applicable websites of the American Association of Anatomists (AAA), the American Association of Clinical Anatomists (AACA), and HigherEdJobs.com. The search focused on professions listed under the descriptors of “anatomy professor” and “anatomy education.” The categories collected were the level of position (instructor, assistant, associate, or full‐time), faculty type (tenure or non‐tenure track), type of institution (undergraduate, graduate, or professional school), required qualifications, required years of experience, expected courses to teach, and research. Data were categorized and frequency counts were tabulated. In total, 122 open positions were reviewed from postings listed between November 2016 to November 2017. Of the jobs listed, 70% were anatomy related (n = 86), and 30% were not directly related to anatomy (n = 36). Of the anatomy related jobs, 44% were tenure‐track, 7% were non‐tenure track, and 49% did not specify. Also, half of the anatomy jobs (n = 43) had research based requirements with 11 of these requiring grant funding for projects. Predominantly, the anatomy job listings were posted from undergraduate institutions (59%) seeking candidates to lecture anatomy along with other biology courses (67%), 10 positions required teaching a biology‐related lab, with six of the openings being cadaveric dissection labs. Fifty‐two percent of the anatomy education positions were looking to fill assistant professor roles, 16% seeking instructor positions, 22% associate professors, and about 10% did not specify. Thirty‐eight percent of these positions were specified as full‐time roles. Within the anatomy‐related occupations, the majority of educational positions required a PhD degree or equivalent (n = 66). Based on the brief window of review, there are multiple anatomy based job vacancies, with the majority being research‐affiliated anatomy assistant roles and some of those requiring prospective grant funding. Future directions for this study are to examine the type of research required for grant funding, either bench or educational research, which was often not specified in these brief descriptions. Also, examination of the job listings on the type of teaching methods such as active‐learning, lecture, etc. would provide insight to incorporate certain pedagogical classes into PhD programs. Additionally, the courses required of potential faculty members to teach can be analyzed so that PhD programs can fulfill the demands of the market.Support or Funding InformationThis study was not funded.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Contrast Enhanced Imaging as an Alternative to Dissection in Tree Shrew (Tupaiidae: Scandentia) Chewing Musculature

A burgeoning technique in the field of comparative biology involves staining specimens with iodine, followed by CT scanning. Along with providing excellent 3D visualization of soft tissue by giving it a higher attenuation, iodine staining enables digital isolation of muscles and the potential for measuring individual muscle fascicles. It is well suited for visualizing muscles of mastication, especially the medial and lateral pterygoid muscles; located internally, they are often difficult to dissect in small mammals. Here, we test the reliability of this method as an alternative to traditional dissection for obtaining accurate volume and muscle fascicle length measurements. This was accomplished by digitally isolating the masticatory muscles in three tree shrew cadaver specimens that had been subjected to iodine staining. These specimens represent the largest (Tupaia tana), smallest (T. minor), and average (T. belangeri) sizes of tree shrew. All specimens were frozen from death. After fixing with 10% buffered formalin, specimens were stained in a 3% solution of I2KI (T. tana; T. minor) or 5% solution of I2KI (T. belangeri) for 14 days. The heads were microCT scanned (at resolutions of 44.5 μm, 26.5 μm, and 32.2 μm respectively), enabling their muscles to be digitally isolated. Fascicles were visible only in T. minor due to a higher resolution, and were not measurable in any of the specimens. Larger bundles of fascicles contained within connective tissue compartments were identified and used to delineate separate muscles layers (eg. superficial vs deep masseter). These results indicate that while muscle fascicles are not measureable using these scans, they may be measurable if resolution could be increased. Isolating the muscles digitally provided more accurate measures of volume as compared to traditional dissection, while also preserving their orientation. Future work will focus on using these data to digitally map tree shrew muscles of mastication onto fossil primate mandibles as an analogue for studying early primate chewing systems.Support or Funding InformationThis work was supported through an American Association of Anatomists Short‐term Visiting Scholarship to H. Kristjanson

The Path to Anatomy via Molecular Biology

Prior to the advent of Maxam and Gilbert DNA sequencing and Sanger, Nicklen and Coulson DNA sequencing, I was a student in an RNA sequencing laboratory. The experience taught me the proper paranoia for isolating and handling RNA. This was useful when, in the 1980s, I joined the lab of Bjorn Olsen at Rutgers Medical School, now called Robert Wood Johnson Medical School. There I learned the most current procedures in molecular biology, DNA sequencing and cloning. Bjorn was a great mentor, and he was an interesting guy. One day, another student and I found his histology notebook on his bookshelf‐‐he had hand drawn and colored every tissue section he had viewed so that he could study them for his histology exams. They were beautiful, accurate works of art, so intricate that I wished I could draw like that. Bjorn's passion about his work was contagious, and as a consequence, I fell in love with the family of collagens, which consisted of only 9 or 10 members then. A postdoc in the Olsen lab, Yoshifumi Ninomiya, had a role in determining the structure of type IX collagen by making a cDNA library from cartilage mRNAs and isolating the cDNAs corresponding to the collagen IX polypeptide chains. I was in awe of the idea that there were molecular biology strategies that could be used to identify and characterize new collagens, all because these triple helical molecules had repeating Gly‐Xxx‐Yyy sequences. The thrill of potentially being able to discover a new collagen made me love this type of science even more, and I put my whole heart into it. Around that time, a postdoc from Elizabeth Hay's lab visited Bjorn's lab, and this led to my meeting one of the best friends I'll ever have. That person, Kathy Svoboda, is not only partially responsible for Bjorn being hired by Betty Hay, chair of the Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology at Harvard Medical School, but her suggestion meant my life would change too! If Bjorn went to Boston, my husband Don and I would also get to go. And we did! It was an exciting experience to be in that department. Kathy, Betty, Bjorn and other faculty would talk about the American Association of Anatomists, and Kathy convinced me that AAA had investigators and educators that covered just about any topic in the biological sciences that could possibly interest me. She talked me into attending one of the annual meetings. I joined AAA sometime in the late 1980s or early 1990s, and, finding that what Kathy had said was true, I wanted to play a role in the society. I began serving on a committee as a guest member in 1999, and by 2001 I was committed to giving back to the Association since I had gotten so much from it. As I met more and more of the AAA members, I realized I now had greatly extended my “family” of scientists from this society, and that they played a big role in my being happy in my career.Support or Funding InformationSupported by National Eye Institute EY009056, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases U54AR055073, and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences P30ES005022

Building Bridges Between Brazil and the US: Anatomical Sciences and Medical Education

Brazil and the US represent the two most populous countries in the western hemisphere with the greatest number of medical schools and students in training. Over the past decade there has been considerable cross‐fertilization among anatomists in the two countries particularly in the American Association of Anatomists / Experimental Biology Meetings. Medical schools and universities in the US generally count on excellent infrastructure; high quality, motivated faculty; and cutting edge technology. The interplay of these assets results in flexible strategies that address the needs of millennial students and a modern way of learning that is interactive, multimodal and stimuli‐dependent. In Brazil, different educational settings have particular difficulties and needs. Building Bridges is an international initiative in medical education to foster collaborations and exchange experiences in anatomical sciences among students, researchers, and educators in Brazil and the US. Here we report the results from the first endeavor of our ongoing initiative. We organized three meetings that were held in Brazil, in November 2015, hosted by private, state and federal medical universities, respectively: Santa Casa School of Medical Sciences in Sao Paulo, University of Sao Paulo ‐ Ribeirão Preto, and Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. Each meeting consisted of lectures on both current research and educational topics in anatomy by faculty from the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai and local professors. In addition, there were discussions on medical curricula, and specific challenges faced by each school. Students representing academic organizations (e.g. “Anatomy Leagues”) had the opportunity to introduce their work, ask questions, and discuss subjects of particular interest, for example availability of cadaver dissection and the use of imaging technology in the gross anatomy lab. The active participation of over 300 students and professors showed a clear interest for this program. There were also meetings with the Deans and Course Coordinators in the different settings to exchange experiences, discuss current issues in medical curricula and specific difficulties in teaching anatomy from the different educational standpoints. These opportunities allowed for us to better understand specific needs of medical students in each type medical school in Brazil. Lastly, we met with Brazilian Government Officials in both Brazil and the US to give feedback. We are currently planning on student workshops visiting programs and meetings in both the US and Brazil as part of the ongoing Building Bridges initiatives.Support or Funding InformationSupport Sources: National Counsel of Technological Development – CNPq; Santa Casa School of Medicine of Sao Paulo; University of Sao Paulo ‐ Ribeirao Preto; Federal University of Rio de Janeiro; The Anatomical Record.

The Anatomy Training Program: a Participant's Perspective

The Anatomy Training Program (ATP, http://www.anatomy.org/anatomy‐training‐program.html) is a joint undertaking between the American Association of Anatomists and the Anatomical Society (UK). It aims at training anatomists so that they can teach Gross Anatomy at a graduate/professional school level. I participated in the ATP during the 2013 – 2015 academic years. I had no prior anatomical education, and the dental school at which I am a postdoctoral fellow sponsored me to participate in the program. My objective for this presentation is to present the positive and negative aspects of the ATP program by describing and reflecting on my experiences in the ATP. As a result of a significant time commitment in ATP I learnt Anatomy to the level that I currently teach it at our dental school. During the ATP program I learnt didactic and dissecting skills. I have a foundation for treating teaching as a science and view teaching as a complex student‐teacher interaction. I have learnt an important self‐improvement tool: reflection. I started using this tool as a method of improving my anatomical knowledge and teaching methods. I have recently interviewed at and received a job offer from a US medical school. In conclusion, ATP has been vital to advancing my career in anatomical education. In addition, reflection has become a life skill that I use to improve my performance in all sorts of endeavors ranging from cooking to home improvement to job related activities.Support or Funding InformationAmerican Association of Anatomists

PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF SKELETAL TRAUMA FROM AN ATYPICAL EARLY COLONIAL PERIOD PIT BURIAL WITH COMPARISON TO FRACTURES OBSERVED AMONG TYPICAL LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (ca AD 1250) ABOVE‐GROUND TOMBS IN THE ANCASH REGION OF HIGHLAND PERU

An atypical subterranean pit burial discovered under a house floor at a prehistoric highland site in Ancash, Peru contains the skeletonized remains of adults and children who appear to have been deposited in a single event. It was hypothesized that the mass grave represents a deposit of individuals who were killed in a situation associated with warfare. To test this hypothesis, a macroscopic analysis of the traumatic injuries of a minimum number of 44 adult skeletons from the pit burial was compared to the pattern of injuries sustained by individuals from an earlier time period who were interred in more typical above‐ground tombs. Results demonstrate that the skeletons from the pit burial demonstrate 20 healed and unhealed traumatic injuries, many of which are found on the posterior aspects of the crania. In contrast, the individuals from the earlier time period demonstrate a low prevalence (1.6%) of postcranial fractures related to falling injuries, and relatively high frequency (33%) of healed and unhealed cranial injuries that cluster on the front left side of the face. Whereas this latter pattern of injury is reflective of face‐to‐face combat, the pattern of injury sustained by the individuals from the pit burial may suggest that the individuals were fleeing their assailants. Implications of these findings are explored.Support or Funding InformationVisiting Scholarship awarded by the American Association of Anatomists

Pride, Protectionism, and Prejudice: Overcoming Hurdles in Setting‐up Pilots to Evaluate “Fix for Life”, a Low‐hazardous Embalming Method Preserving Life‐like Morphology

About 5 years ago, the “Fix for Life” project was born, which aimed to develop a new low‐hazardous embalming method to preserve life‐like morphology. To achieve these goals, adult female surplus rats from the animal lab's embryo‐breeding program were used for the embalming experiments. After about twenty trials with different embalming and preservation recipes, the promising results generated enough support to transfer the procedure from the animal to the human cadaver model. One year later, the LUMC Department of Anatomy and Embryology decided to use the Fix for Life method as the standard embalming/preservation method for their body donation program and phase out their former embalming procedures based on 4% formaldehyde fixation by perfusion and 2% phenol preservation by immersion.The results of the “Fix for Life” project were presented at the 2014 annual meeting of Dutch Anatomy Society (NAV) in Lunteren and one year later at the annual meeting of the American Association of Anatomists (AAA) in Boston. During these meetings many colleagues showed a great interest in the presented results and were very eager to perform a pilot to evaluate the method in their own institute. This presentation focuses not only on the hurdles to set‐up such pilots, but also the victories once having left them behind.

Concurrent Growth of Craniofacial Structures and the Aerodigestive Tract of Human Infants: Clinical Applications

Vital changes in form and function occur during the first four months of human postnatal life that allow for coordination of breathing and swallowing. These changes involve modifications in the gross anatomy of the skull, face and aerodigestive tract (ADT) structures, vocal fold histology, laryngeal chemoreflexes, formant frequency acoustics, audio pattern recognition, and limb control. Precise identification of ADT clinicopathologies that occur in this timeframe is essential to focusing the direction of this study. We here describe conditions with high incidence in infants from 0-4 months affecting growth and function of the ADT, skull, and craniofacial structures. Amongst the most noticeable are obstructive sleep apnea, sudden infant death syndrome, otitis media, cleft lip and palate and craniosynostosis. We also discuss clinical procedures and surgical techniques involved in elective and emergency treatments, including endotracheal intubation and surgical reconstructions of craniofacial structures. This study is part of a larger project charting the growth of skull and ADT structures from MRI images of infants from 0-4 months. Our hypothesis is that these structures develop with regularity, allowing for predictability and determination of normal growth trajectories. Better understanding of functional morphologic relationships between skull and ADT during this window of development may contribute to improving recognition, assessment, and treatment strategies/techniques for these conditions. Grant Funding Sources: American Association of Anatomists – AAA National Counsel of Technological Development – CNPq