Amboseli Research Articles

Bridging the Rift: demonstrating large mammal landscape connectivity from Amboseli National Park to the greater Maasai Mara

Bridging the Rift: demonstrating large mammal landscape connectivity from Amboseli National Park to the greater Maasai Mara

Cascading effects of elephant–human interactions and the role of space and mobility in sustaining biodiversity

AbstractOur study monitored the changes in elephant numbers, distribution, and ecological impacts over a 50‐year period. During this period, the free‐ranging intermingled movements of wildlife and traditional subsistence pastoralists across the Amboseli ecosystem were disrupted by a national park, livestock ranches, farms, settlements, and changing lifestyles and economies. Elephants compressed into the national park by poaching and settlement turned woodlands to grassland and shrublands, and swamps into short grazing lawns, causing a reduction of plant and herbivore diversity and resilience to extreme events. The results echo the ecological findings of high‐density elephant populations in protected areas across eastern and southern Africa. The impact has led to the view of elephants in parks as being incompatible with biodiversity and to population control measures. In contrast to Amboseli National Park, we found woody vegetation grew and plant diversity fell in areas abandoned by elephants. We therefore used naturalistic and exclosure experiments to determine the density‐dependent response of vegetation to elephants. We found plant richness to peak at the park boundary where elephants and livestock jostled spatially, setting up a creative browsing‐grazing tension that caused a patchwork of habitats and peak of plant richness. Prehistorical and historical literature reviews lend support to the Amboseli findings that elephants and people, the two dominant keystone species in the savannas, have been intimately entangled and coexisted prior to the global ivory trade and colonialism. The findings point to the need to view specific elephant populations in historical perspective and, as far as possible, create connectivity beyond protected areas to allow mobility on an ecosystem and landscape scale. The Amboseli study underscores the significance of space and mobility in the keystone role of elephants, and community‐based conservation as a way to foster coexistence at an ecosystem and landscape scale. Space and mobility also alleviate the ecological disruption of compressed populations, and minimizes population management.

Instrumentalizing pastoralism? Understanding hybrid tenure and governance in Ilkisongo Maasai land of southern Kenya

Throughout Kenya, new governance regimes that are designed to sustain habitat connectivity for wildlife populations outside of national parks have gained increasing prominence. Though these new regimes often center a discursive emphasis on the synergies between wildlife conservation and pastoralist land use, it often remains unclear how they have interacted with colonial and post-colonial legacies that influenced pastoralists' relationships with land. As an effort to gain an improved understanding of the practices that conservation governance regimes deploy, and their underlying rationales, I present an empirically-driven account drawn from ethnographic field work in Kenyan Ilkisongo Maasai land surrounding Amboseli National Park. I argue that to understand recent configurations of land, it is essential to consider the multiple types of interlocking practices deployed by international wildlife conservation NGOs and the Kenyan state. Under a range of pressures to subdivide collectively titled land, a new territorial and governance configuration is emerging where land tenure will retain characteristics of being both private and collective. I argue that a discursive emphasis that frames conservation interventions as producing welfare for populations of wildlife and pastoralists alike has created new potentials to center the concerns of politically marginalized pastoralists, but has also raised risks of an ‘anti-politics’ that can reproduce and reinforce multiple dimensions of power asymmetries.

Gut bacteria are an ‘outside’ and an ‘inside’ job

The gut of virtually every creature is packed with an army of microscopic helpers, mostly bacteria but also viruses and fungi. These microscopic lifeforms – which together constitute the gut microbiome – help with food digestion and with training the immune system of the creatures they inhabit. Given the fundamental role of these microorganisms in life support, scientists have been curious to understand how much of the variability in the composition and abundance of gut microbes comes from genetic differences of their inhabitants as opposed to environmental factors. Although work in humans has suggested that variability in gut flora is mostly influenced by our diet and lifestyle rather than our genetic makeup, an international group of scientists led by Laura Grieneisen and Ran Blekhman from the University of Minnesota, USA, suspected that the story could be more complex, and wondered whether one of our close relatives, baboons, could help us to discover whether our bacterial lodgers are kept within the family.Grieneisen and her colleagues collected over 16,000 fecal samples from 585 wild baboons over 14 years – which is a significant portion of the lifespans of most baboons – in Kenya's Amboseli National Park, to examine changes in their gut microbes. In addition, the team also knew the family relationships of each individual in each troop, their diet and their age when each fecal sample was collected, as well as how the local conditions were affecting them, so they could rule out similarities that were caused by the conditions that the animals were living in and identify true similarities owing to the baboons’ shared genes.The team's extensive work and dedication paid off: they found that the baboons inherited the majority of their gut microbiome communities (97%) from their predecessors. In addition, the researchers found that the similarity between family members’ gut microbiomes were closer during the dry season than during the wet season. This was probably because baboons consume a greater range of foods in the wet season when fruits, flowers and greens become abundant. How old each individual was also had an impact on how similar their gut microbiomes were, as they became increasingly more alike as the baboons aged, possibly because of changes in their dietary tastes over the course of the animal's life.Interestingly, the researchers found that the number of fecal samples available for each individual baboon – on average they collected 28 fecal samples per animal, rather than depending on one or two samples taken a single point during an animal's life – was an important factor that allowed them to reveal how heritable gut microbiomes are. When they collapsed their full dataset to only one fecal sample per individual baboon, to simulate the approach that scientists usually take, it incorrectly suggested that less than 5% of gut microbes were inherited. This goes to show how crucial it was to track the baboons over almost all of their entire lives, to bring out the true similarities between the individuals’ gut microbiomes.Grieneisen's study provides novel evidence about the role played by the genetics of the host animal in the regulation of their gut microbiome, challenging the concept that host genes are only bit players. These findings pave the way for novel and exciting research to try to identify the genetic code behind healthy human gut bacteria, which could help to improve the quality of our lives.

Live fast, die young

Aging Aging sees many physiological changes. Studies are revealing the dynamics of the cells and molecular factors that contribute to the aging process. For example, chronological age can be estimated by comparing DNA methylation status. Anderson et al. measured DNA methylation in the baboons of Kenya's Amboseli National Park to find out whether epigenetic changes associated with aging are affected by an animal's social environment in the wild. Early adversity and social bonds did not apparently affect the epigenetic clock, but there was a signal from male social status and competitiveness. By measuring the accumulation of epigenetic markers, high-ranking dominant males appeared older than their chronological ages. eLife 10 , e66128 (2021).

Patterns of helminth infection in Kenyan elephant populations

BackgroundThe dynamics of helminth infection in African elephant populations are poorly known. We examined the effects of age, sex, social structure and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) as primary drivers of infection patterns within and between elephant populations.MethodsCoprological methods were used to identify helminths and determine infection patterns in distinct elephant populations in Maasai Mara National Reserve, Tsavo East National Park, Amboseli National Park and Laikipia-Samburu Ecosystem. Gaussian finite mixture cluster analyses of egg dimensions were used to classify helminth eggs according to genera. Generalized linear models (GLM) and Chi-square analyses were used to test for variation in helminth infection patterns and to identify drivers in elephant populations.ResultsHelminth prevalence varied significantly between the studied populations. Nematode prevalence (96.3%) was over twice as high as that of trematodes (39.1%) in elephants. Trematode prevalence but not nematode prevalence varied between populations. Although we found no associations between helminth infection and elephant social groups (male vs family groups), the median helminth egg output (eggs per gram, epg) did vary between social groups: family groups had significantly higher median epg than solitary males or males in bachelor groups. Young males in mixed sex family groups had lower epg than females when controlling for population and age; these differences, however, were not statistically significant. The average NDVI over a three-month period varied between study locations. Cluster analyses based on egg measurements revealed the presence of Protofasciola sp., Brumptia sp., Murshidia sp., Quilonia sp. and Mammomonogamus sp. GLM analyses showed that the mean epg was positively influenced by a three-month cumulative mean NDVI and by social group; female social groups had higher epg than male groups. GLM analyses also revealed that epg varied between elephant populations: Samburu-Laikipia elephants had a higher and Tsavo elephants a lower epg than Amboseli elephants.ConclusionsElephants had infection patterns characterized by within- and between-population variation in prevalence and worm burden. Sociality and NDVI were the major drivers of epg but not of helminth prevalence. Gastrointestinal parasites can have a negative impact on the health of wild elephants, especially during resource scarcity. Thus, our results will be important when deciding intervention strategies.

Pastoral pasts in the Amboseli landscape: an archaeological exploration of the Amboseli ecosystem from the later Holocene to the colonial period

The Amboseli ecosystem, home of Amboseli National Park, is renowned for its extraordinary biodiversity, and has long drawn the attention of conservationists and ecologists hoping to safeguard the h ...

Late Holocene wetland transgression and 500\xa0years of vegetation and fire variability in the semi-arid Amboseli landscape, southern Kenya

The semi-arid Amboseli landscape, southern Kenya, is characterised by intermittent groundwater-fed wetlands that form sedimentary geoarchives recording past ecosystem changes. We present a 5000-year environmental history of a radiocarbon dated sediment core from Esambu Swamp adjacent to Amboseli National Park. Although radiocarbon dates suggest an unconformity or sedimentary gap that spans between 3800 and 500 cal year BP, the record provides a unique insight into the long-term ecosystem history and wetland processes, particularly the past 500 years. Climatic shifts, fire activity and recent anthropogenic activity drive changes in ecosystem composition. Prior to 3800 cal year BP the pollen data suggest semi-arid savanna ecosystem persisted near the wetland. The wetland transgressed at some time between 3800 and 500 cal year BP and it is difficult to constrain this timing further, and palustrine peaty sediments have accumulated since 400 cal year BP. Increased abundance of Afromontane forest taxa from adjacent highlands of Kilimanjaro and the Chyulu Hills and local arboreal taxa reflect changes in regional moisture budgets. Particularly transformative changes occurred in the last five centuries, associated with increased local biomass burning coeval with the arrival of Maa-speaking pastoralists and intensification of the ivory trade. Cereal crops occurred consistently from around 300 cal year BP, indicative of further anthropogenic activity. The study provides unique insight in Amboseli ecosystem history and the link between ecosystem drivers of change. Such long-term perspectives are crucial for future climate change and associated livelihood impacts, so that suitable responses to ensure sustainable management practices can be developed in an important conservation landscape.

The cost of livestock lost to lions and other wildlife species in the Amboseli ecosystem, Kenya

Though retaliatory lion (Panthera leo) killing as a result of livestock predation in the Maasai group ranches between the Tsavo NPs and Amboseli is remarkably high, other wildlife species are known to kill livestock. Surprisingly, lions suffer the most from retaliatory killing by the Maasai community for killing livestock. The extent of livestock predation by lions in comparison to other species is unknown. This study was carried out in the Olgulului group ranch (OGR) located adjacent to Amboseli National Park in June 2009. The cost of livestock killed by each of these species including lion, hyena (Crocuta crocuta), cheetah (Acynonyx jubatus), leopard (Panthera pardus), olive baboon (Papio cynocephalus), black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas), and African elephant (Loxodonta africana) was analyzed. Questionnaires, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews with officials from OGR, Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), and compensation scheme organizations were the methods used to collect information. Cluster and systematic sampling techniques were used to select a sample of 199 respondents from OGR. Lions were blamed for 40.5% (US$ 374,603) of the value of livestock lost to wildlife. The costs of livestock lost to hyenas and lions were not significantly different (q = 0.24, p = 0.968). Although hyenas killed more livestock compared to lions, the economic damage between the two was not significantly different because lions attacked cattle which had high economic value. Conservation of lions will be increasingly difficult if the current levels of predation are not reduced to economically and socially acceptable levels.

The impact of competition on elephant musth strategies: A game–theoretic model

Mature male African Savannah elephants are known to periodically enter a temporary state of heightened aggression called “musth”, often linked with increased androgens, particularly testosterone. Sexually mature males are capable of entering musth at any time of year, and will often travel long distances to find estrous females. When two musth bulls or two non-musth bulls encounter one another, the agonistic interaction is usually won by the larger male. However, when a smaller musth bull encounters a larger non-musth bull, the smaller musth male can win. The relative mating success of musth males is due partly to this fighting advantage, and partly to estrous females' general preference for musth males.Though musth behavior has long been observed and documented, the evolutionary advantages of musth remain poorly understood. Here we develop a game–theoretic model of male musth behavior which assumes musth duration as a parameter, and distributions of small, medium and large musth males are predicted in both time and space. The predicted results are similar to the musth timing behavior observed in the Amboseli National Park elephant population, and further results are generated with relevance to Samburu National Park. We discuss small male musth behavior, the effects of estrous female spatial heterogeneity on musth timing, conservation applications, and the assumptions underpinning the model.

Primates in the real world: escaping primate folklore and creating primate science

The opening of this vital new book centers on a series of graves memorializing baboons killed near Amboseli National Park in Kenya in 2009--a stark image that emphasizes both the close emotional connection between primate researchers and their subjects and the intensely human qualities of the animals. Primates in the Real World goes on to trace primatology's shift from short-term expeditions designed to help overcome centuries-old myths to the field's arrival as a recognized science sustained by a complex web of international collaborations. Considering a series of pivotal episodes spanning the twentieth century, Georgina Montgomery shows how individuals both within and outside of the scientific community gradually liberated themselves from primate folklore to create primate science. Achieved largely through a movement from the lab to the field as the primary site of observation, this development reflected an urgent and ultimately extremely productive reassessment of what constitutes natural behavior for primates. An important contribution to the history of science and of women's roles in science, as well as to animal studies and the exploration of the animal-human boundary, Montgomery's engagingly written narrative provides the general reader with the most accessible overview to date of this enduringly fascinating field of study.

Post Drought Population Status and Trend of Specialized Browsers in the Mid Kenya-Tanzania Borderland

We examined the population status, trend and distribution of Gerenuk, Fringe-eared Oryx and Lesser kudu in the Northern Tanzania and Southern Kenya borderland after the 2007 to 2009 drought. The species were characterized by low numbers and sparsely distributed in the borderland but were more prevalent and abundant in the Amboseli region. However, West Kilimanjaro had the highest positive change in density between 2010 and 2013 [Gerenuk = +1650.48 ± 1150.31, lesser kudu = +912.78 ± 487.63 and Fringe-eared Oryx = +366.65 ± 233.32]. Changes in density and composition varied seasonally among the different sectors of the borderland, with Gerenuk having the highest change in the Amboseli area during the wet season. Lesser kudu had the highest change in Amboseli and Kilimanjaro during the wet season while Fringe-eared Oryx had the highest change in the wet season in West Kilimanjaro area. Spatial distribution of the species varied seasonally and across different sectors of the borderland. In the dry season, Gerenuk exhibited a clumped distribution mainly in Amboseli National Park, and between Natron and West Kilimanjaro but in the wet season, it spread out more though higher concentrations were still found Amboseli and West Kilimanjaro. Lesser concentrated in mostly in West Kilimanjaro and Amboseli during the dry season but was widely dispersed during the wet season. Similarly, during the dry season, the Fringe-eared Oryx was confined in the Amboseli and West Kilimanjaro areas but during the wet season, it much more spread out with clusters in the Mbirikani area of the Amboseli region and a few places in Magadi, Natron and West Kilimanjaro. Management implications of the findings obtained in this study area here-in discussed.

Spatial cluster analysis for large herbivore distributions: Amboseli ecosystem, Kenya

We present an assessment of seasonal movements and species distributions in the Amboseli ecosystem, southern Kenya, using spatial cluster analysis for large herbivore populations over the period 1970 to 2010. Six large mammal species were grouped into zones of most similar use based on a spatial hierarchical cluster analysis. The herbivores clustered into metabolic biomass size classes, suggesting variability in migration and habitat utilization patterns at different scales. The analysis shows a steady loss of spatial spread and heterogeneity among six indicator species over the decades. The findings point to the spread of farming, loss of habitat, land subdivision, sedentarization and ivory poaching as key factors causing compression of species in and around Amboseli National Park. The national park and environs is the only cluster showing no loss of species heterogeneity. The analysis highlights large herbivores as more vulnerable to displacement and compression than small species. The hierarchical cluster analysis shows the use of spatial tools in detecting patterns of change across an ecosystem and identifying important areas for land conservation and restoration to sustain species migration and species diversity.

Contribution of Gold-ecorated Lodges to Poverty Reduction among Local Residents in Maasai Mara and Amboseli Protected Areas, Kenya

Poverty is the most pressing challenge facing humankind in the 21st century. In response, various options are being pursued to address it; key among them being ecotourism. While some scholars emphasize the potential of ecotourism in alleviating poverty, existing statistics reveal that majority of people living adjacent to wildlife protected areas continue to suffer from the absence of fundamental opportunities to lead decent lives. This study, therefore, was conducted around Basecamp Maasai Mara and Elephant Pepper Camp in Maasai Mara National Reserve (MMNR) as well as Campi ya Kanzi in Amboseli National Park (ANP), Kenya to investigate the contribution of gold-ecorated lodges to poverty reduction. Specifically, the study assessed eco-lodges’ contribution towards local community access to financial resources, basic needs, governance, empowerment and equality as a measure of their contribution to poverty reduction. The study adopted survey design using structured questionnaires and focus group discussion in data collection. The target population included households adjacent to the three eco-lodges. Through simple random sampling, a sample size of 384 households was generated and participated in the questionnaire survey. To generate focus group, purposive sampling was used to recruit key informants who included area chiefs, managers of the eco-lodges, members of cultural manyattas and chairmen of group ranches for interviews and focus group discussions. Majority of the local community indicated that eco-lodges had greatly contributed to education and healthcare. However, majority of the respondents indicated that eco-lodges had not addressed access to financial resources like access to credit and supply of locally produced agricultural produce; inadequate and skewed financial sharing mechanisms; limited access, ownership and control of their once communal land; lack of technical and legal know-how; access to clean water and adequate shelter. Moreover, lack of partnerships with other stakeholders, inequality in sharing ecotourism benefits, discrimination against women, disunity and mistrust, and lack of government support were identified as the main constraints hindering poverty reduction efforts. The study recommends a need for an ecotourism policy that will not only establish fair and sustainable economic partnerships between private investors and local community, but also ensure community cohesion and enhanced socio-economic welfare. Kenya’s National eco-labeling regulators should also put more emphasis on socio-economic benefits of such eco-lodges to the local community besides environmental conservation efforts they foster.

Water Quantity and Quality Dimensions in Public and Environmental Health Among the Maasai of Amboseli Area, Kenya

A comprehensive water situation analysis is critical in understanding linkages between environmental health, people and livelihoods. This study examined water and public health issues among the Maasai of Kimana near Amboseli National Park. Data was collected on the status, and trends in water quality and quantity, their causes and impacts to the local community using field assessment, interviews with local communities and laboratory analysis on water quality. Results indicated water quantity and quality were declining, and this was attributed to increase in human population, prevalence of irrigated agriculture, and recent climatic changes. The decline was thought to be contamination from human and livestock waste, proximity of homes to water sources, poor sanitation practices, agro – chemicals pollution, high levels of suspended solids and particulate matter. There was a general lack of enforcement by relevant agencies responsible for conservation and use of water resources. Due to communal ownership of resources and lack of resource stewardship, environmental degradation has become prevalent causing soil erosion which contributes to water contamination and sedimentation. A decline in water quantity and quality has led to increased prevalence of waterborne diseases such as dysentery, amoebiosis and typhoid. Therefore the water situation in the Kimana area is leading to negative consequences on the health of local communities. Appropriate intervention strategies are needed to promote sustainable water use and safeguard public health in the area.

The Influence of Social Structure, Habitat, and Host Traits on the Transmission of Escherichia coli in Wild Elephants

Social structure is proposed to influence the transmission of both directly and environmentally transmitted infectious agents. However in natural populations, many other factors also influence transmission, including variation in individual susceptibility and aspects of the environment that promote or inhibit exposure to infection. We used a population genetic approach to investigate the effects of social structure, environment, and host traits on the transmission of Escherichia coli infecting two populations of wild elephants: one in Amboseli National Park and another in Samburu National Reserve, Kenya. If E. coli transmission is strongly influenced by elephant social structure, E. coli infecting elephants from the same social group should be genetically more similar than E. coli sampled from members of different social groups. However, we found no support for this prediction. Instead, E. coli was panmictic across social groups, and transmission patterns were largely dominated by habitat and host traits. For instance, habitat overlap between elephant social groups predicted E. coli genetic similarity, but only in the relatively drier habitat of Samburu, and not in Amboseli, where the habitat contains large, permanent swamps. In terms of host traits, adult males were infected with more diverse haplotypes, and males were slightly more likely to harbor strains with higher pathogenic potential, as compared to adult females. In addition, elephants from similar birth cohorts were infected with genetically more similar E. coli than elephants more disparate in age. This age-structured transmission may be driven by temporal shifts in genetic structure of E. coli in the environment and the effects of age on bacterial colonization. Together, our results support the idea that, in elephants, social structure often will not exhibit strong effects on the transmission of generalist, fecal-oral transmitted bacteria. We discuss our results in the context of social, environmental, and host-related factors that influence transmission patterns.

Influence of Aesthetic Appreciation of Wildlife Species on Attitudes towards Their Conservation in Kenyan Agropastoralist Communities

The influence of human aesthetic appreciation of animal species on public attitudes towards their conservation and related decision-making has been studied in industrialized countries but remains underexplored in developing countries. Working in three agropastoralist communities around Amboseli National Park, southern Kenya, we investigated the relative strength of human aesthetic appreciation on local attitudes towards the conservation of wildlife species. Using semi-structured interviewing and free listing (n = 191) as part of a mixed methods approach, we first characterized local aesthetic judgments of wildlife species. With a Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMM) approach, we then determined the influence of perceiving four species as beautiful on local support for their protection (“rescuing them”), and of perceiving four other species as ugly on support for their removal from the area, while controlling for informant personal and household socioeconomic attributes. Perceiving giraffe, gazelles and eland as beautiful is the strongest variable explaining support for rescuing them. Ugliness is the strongest variable influencing support for the removal of buffalo, hyena, and elephant (but not lion). Both our qualitative and quantitative results suggest that perceptions of ugly species could become more positive through direct exposure to those species. We propose that protected areas in developing countries facilitate visitation by local residents to increase their familiarity with species they rarely see or most frequently see in conflict with human interests. Since valuing a species for its beauty requires seeing it, protected areas in developing countries should connect the people who live around them with the animals they protect. Our results also show that aesthetic appreciation of biodiversity is not restricted to the industrialized world.

Community Participation in Wildlife Conservation in Amboseli Ecosystem, Kenya

Amboseli National Park is regarded as one of the most economically significant parks owing to high tourist visitation and revenue streams. Despite the economic significance of Amboseli National Park, the wildlife dispersal areas outside the park boundaries are shrinking at an alarming rate due to changing land use activities and a growing human population pressure, aggravating human -wildlife conflicts as well as creating unviable ecosystem for wildlife. The park cannot support the current wildlife populations without the dispersal areas offered by the community land. The ecological limitation of the park calls for the management of wildlife resource in the ecosystem to be inclusive and involve the local communities. This study therefore aimed to provide these linkages and fill the existing gap by examining modalities for enhancing community participation in wildlife conservation in Amboseli Ecosystem informed by Social Exchange Theory and supported by the General Systems Theory.

Human-Carnivore Conflicts in Private Conservancy Lands of Elerai and Oltiyiani in Amboseli Area, Kenya

Human-carnivore conflicts represent the most common negative form of interactions between humans and wildlife. Most carnivores involved in such conflicts are: lion, hyena, leopard and cheetah. Three strategies are normally used in Kenya to mitigate such conflicts; consolation for lost livestock and human life to increase tolerance to them, use of predator proof homesteads especially among pastoralists, use flicking lights at night to discourage approach of carnivores near homesteads, and awareness creation among communities on the ecological role of carnivores. This study examined human-carnivore interactions in privately owned conservancies near Amboseli National Park, Kenya. The conservancies were found to have almost similar human and livestock demography. However, homesteads in Elerai had more fence broken parts and relatively higher levels of livestock predation by lion and hyena. The higher the number of each livestock type was, the higher the specific predation to that livestock type was, implying density dependent effects of predation by carnivores on livestock. It seemed that the fence structure and level of maintenance (including carnivore strategies on specializing on specific livestock size and age consistent with optimizing their foraging strategies) influenced predation incidences. However, the presence of adult males and Maasai warriors (morans) in bomas did not seem to be related with the number of livestock killed by carnivores, implying that they didn’t add vigilance as an additional strategy to prevent livestock depredation. It is recommended that attention be paid on maintenance of homestead and livestock fences as well as vigilance to deter predation. We further recommend strategies to prevent livestock predation such as, installation of chain link predator proof fences or carnivore lighting deterrents at night because woody plants fences are ineffective and deteriorate easily with time, and also lead to depletion of plant resources critical to households.

Ecological Fidelity of Functional Traits Based on Species Presence-Absence in the Mammalian Bone Assemblage of Amboseli National Park, Kenya

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