Amazona Brasiliensis Research Articles

Endemic and Threatened Amazona Parrots of the Atlantic Forest: An Overview of Their Geographic Range and Population Size

Amazona is the largest genus of the Psittacidae, one of the most threatened bird families. Here, we study four species of Amazona (Amazona brasiliensis, A. pretrei, A. vinacea, and A. rhodocorytha) that are dependent on a highly vulnerable biome: the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. To examine their distribution and abundance, we compile abundance estimates and counts, and develop site-occupancy models of their geographic range. These models integrate data from formal research and citizen science platforms to estimate probabilistic maps of the species’ occurrence throughout their range. Estimated range areas varied from 15,000 km2 for A. brasiliensis to more than 400,000 km2 for A. vinacea. While A. vinacea is the only species with a statistical estimate of abundance (~8000 individuals), A. pretrei has the longest time series of roost counts, and A. rhodocorytha has the least information about population size. The highest number of individuals counted in one year was for A. pretrei (~20,000), followed by A. brasiliensis (~9000). Continued modeling of research and citizen science data, matched with collaborative designed surveys that count parrots at their non-breeding roosts, are essential for an appropriate assessment of the species’ status, as well as for examining the outcome of conservation actions.

Survey of Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Sarcocystis neurona antibodies in wild red-tailed Amazon parrots (Amazona brasiliensis).

Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Sarcocystis neurona are obligate intracellular parasites within the phylum Apicomplexa. The red-tailed Amazon parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) is a near-threatened species of psittacine that is endemic to the Atlantic Forest of Brazil and has been designated as a bioindicator because of its sensitivity to environmental qualitative status and changes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of antibodies against T. gondii, N. caninum and S. neurona in wild red-tailed Amazon parrot nestlings on Rasa Island, Brazil. Blood samples were collected from 51 parrots and plasma samples were stored at - 20 °C until immunofluorescence antibody tests (IFAT) were performed. Antigen slides were prepared using tachyzoites of T. gondii (RH strain) and, N. caninum (NC-1 strain) and using merozoites of S. neurona (SNR37 strain). Plasma samples were tested at initial dilutions of 1:16 for T. gondii, 1:50 for N. caninum and 1:5 for S. neurona. An anti-chicken antibody conjugated with FITC was used as a secondary antibody at 1:50 dilution. No antibodies for any of these three protozoa were found, thus suggesting that these wild red-tailed Amazon parrot nestlings had not been exposed to these parasites.

Survey of pathogens in threatened wild red-tailed Amazon parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) nestlings in Rasa Island, Brazil.

The red-tailed Amazon parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) is a threatened species of psittacine bird that inhabit coastal regions of Brazil. In view of the threat of this species, the aim of this study was to perform a health evaluation in wild nestlings in Rasa Island, determining the prevalence of enterobacteria and infectious agents according to type of nest. Blood samples were collected from 64 birds and evaluated for antibodies of Chlamydia psittaci by commercial dot-blot ELISA. Cloacal and oropharyngeal swabs samples were collected from 23 birds from artificial wooden nests, 15 birds from PVC nests and 2 birds from natural nests for microbiological analysis. Swab samples were collected from 58 parrots for C. psittaci detection by PCR and from 50 nestlings for Avian Influenza, Newcastle Disease and West Nile viruses’ detection analysis by real-time RT-PCR. Ten bacterial genera and 17 species were identified, and the most prevalent were Escherichia coli and Klebsiella oxytoca. There was no influence of the type of nest in the nestlings’ microbiota. All samples tested by ELISA and PCR were negative. There is currently insufficient information available about the health of A. brasiliensis and data of this study provide a reference point for future evaluations and aid in conservation plans.

Plasma protein concentrations of the young and adult Amazona brasiliensis parrots

Introduction. The Red-tailed Amazon parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) is an endangered species of the Psittacine family, and for which various data are important for a comprehensive preservation plan. Data about plasma protein gel electrophoresis of Amazon parrot blood are scarce. The purpose of this study was to determine plasma protein concentrations and concentrations of major protein bands in blood of young and adult Red-tailed Amazon parrot (Amazona brasiliensis). Materials and Methods. Blood samples from eight young and eight adult healthy free-living parrots were obtained. Plasma protein concentration and fractions were determined using sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare variables. Results and Conclusions. Six major protein bands with the following molecular weights were identified by SDS-PAGE: 170 kDa, 117 kDa, 85 kDa (putative ovotransferrin), 60 kDa, 45 kDa and 23 kDa. Adult parrots had significantly higher concentrations of total proteins, albumin and other proteins with similar mobility (around 60 kDa). Young birds had significantly higher levels of 23kDa proteins. The concentration of putative ovotransferrin (85 kDa) was not different between young and adult parrots. Plasma protein gel electrophoresis patterns in Red-tailed Amazon parrots are similar between young and adult animals, but specific protein bands differ in their absolute concentrations. This finding should be taken into consideration when clinical pathology data are analysed.

Hematologic and Biochemical Values of Wild Red-Tailed Amazon Parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) Nestlings With Abnormal Clinical Examination in Rasa Island, Brazil

The red-tailed Amazon parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) is an endangered psittacine species, but little information is available about abnormal clinical findings and hematologic and biochemical values of this species, which are important for monitoring the health of this population. To determine hematologic and biochemical values for wild red-tailed parrot nestlings exhibiting abnormal clinical findings, 31 nestlings from the Rasa Island (Paraná State, Southern Brazil) were physically restrained for clinical examination and blood sample collection. On physical examination, 26 birds had mild abnormalities and 5 had severe disorders. Parrots were divided into 5 groups according to the following clinical findings: presence of ectoparasites (group 1), respiratory disorders (group 2), chronic skin lesions caused by fly larvae (group 3), beak disorders (group 4), and severe clinical signs (group 5). Abnormal hematologic and biochemical findings in the nestlings were high total protein in group 3; low values for hemoglobin and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration in group 4; low glucose concentration, high mean absolute heterophil count, and high heterophil : lymphocyte ratio in group 5; high concentrations of total plasma protein in groups 3 and 4; and high globulin concentration in groups 3 and 5. In general, the population assessed was in good condition. These results provide a guide to the expected clinical findings associated with hematologic and biochemical concentrations in a population of free-living parrots with abnormal clinical examination findings. The data support the conservation planning and health monitoring of the endangered red-tailed Amazon parrot.

Hematologic and biochemical reference intervals of free-living Red-Tailed Amazon parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) nestlings on Rasa Island, Paraná, Brazil.

The Red-Tailed Amazon parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) is an endangered species of the Psittaciformes. There is little information about hematologic and biochemical variables of this species. The purpose of this study was to determine hematologic and biochemical RIs for free-living A brasiliensis nestlings on Rasa Island, Paraná, Brazil, and to compare the results between sexes. Thirty-seven parrots were taken from their nests and physically restrained for clinical examination and blood collection. The sex was diagnosed by PCR using the blood samples collected. Reference intervals were determined as recommended by the ASVCP guidelines in healthy nestlings. The difference between groups was analyzed using the Mann-Whitney test or Student's t-test. Sexing revealed 12 females and 25 males. The RIs for the measured variables were as follows: RBC 1.1-2.6 × 106 /μL, PCV 29.1-50.3%, HGB 7.2-12.9 g/dL, MCV 152-293 fL, MCHC 22.2-28.4 g/dL, WBC 4.9-28.5 × 103 /μL, 1.2-16 × 103 /μL, lymphocytes 2.4-18.7 × 103 /μL, monocytes 0.0-1.0 × 103 /μL, eosinophils 0.0-0.9 × 103 /μL, 0.0-1.3 × 103 /μL, heterophil:lymphocyte ratio 0.0-2.2, plasma total solids 2.1-3.7 g/dL, uric acid 0.5-2.0 mg/dL, glucose 184.9-284.3 mg/dL, AST 100.3-226.6 U/L, LDH 178.1-927.7 U/L, CK 149.8-1144.0 U/L, cholesterol 137.5-256.9 mg/dL, total protein 1.8-3.0 g/dL, calcium 7.0-8.6 mg/dL, and phosphorus 2.9-6.1 mg/dL. Increased concentrations of cholesterol (P < .05) were observed in females. This is the first study to establish hematologic and biochemical RIs for free-living A brasiliensis nestlings on Rasa Island. Hematologic and biochemical variables are important tools for evaluating the health status of free-living birds, and also support conservation planning for endangered species.

Polymorphic DNA microsatellite markers for forensic individual identification and parentage analyses of seven threatened species of parrots (family Psittacidae).

The parrot family represents one of the bird group with the largest number of endangered species, as a result of habitat destruction and illegal trade. This illicit traffic involves the smuggling of eggs and animals, and the laundering through captive breeding facilities of wild-caught animals. Despite the huge potential of wildlife DNA forensics to determine with conclusive evidence illegal trade, current usage of DNA profiling approaches in parrots has been limited by the lack of suitable molecular markers specifically developed for the focal species and by low cross-species polymorphism. In this study, we isolated DNA microsatellite markers in seven parrot species threatened with extinction (Amazona brasiliensis, A. oratrix, A. pretrei, A. rhodocorytha, Anodorhynchus leari, Ara rubrogenys and Primolius couloni). From an enriched genomic library followed by 454 pyrosequencing, we characterized a total of 106 polymorphic microsatellite markers (mostly tetranucleotides) in the seven species and tested them across an average number of 19 individuals per species. The mean number of alleles per species and across loci varied from 6.4 to 8.3, with the mean observed heterozygosities ranging from 0.65 to 0.84. Identity and parentage exclusion probabilities were highly discriminatory. The high variability displayed by these microsatellite loci demonstrates their potential utility to perform individual genotyping and parentage analyses, in order to develop a DNA testing framework to determine illegal traffic in these threatened species.

Descrição anatômica de esqueletos de papagaios do gênero Amazona através da utilização de radiografias

Resumo: O esqueleto de papagaios da espécie Amazona aestiva foi descrito e comparado com representantes de outras espécies do gênero Amazona. Para tanto, foram utilizados 22 exemplares da espécie Amazona aestiva; dois das espécies Amazona vinacea; Amazona rhodocorythae, Amazona farinosa, além de um exemplar das espécies Amazona brasiliensis e Amazona pretrei, doados após morte natural pelo Criadouro Poços de Caldas. Foram realizadas radiografias de corpo inteiro, variando de decúbito lateral direito ou esquerdo, no caso das projeções latero-laterais, e em decúbito dorsal, no caso da projeção ventro-dorsal. Independentemente da espécie, os crânios dos papagaios estudados puderam ser classificados como pró-cinéticos, por apresentarem liberdade de movimentos em sua porção rostral. Na maioria dos casos, a coluna vertebral esteve formada por 12 vértebras cervicais, seis vértebras torácicas livres, sinsacro (formado pela fusão da última vértebra torácica, 7 lombosacrais e uma caudal), cinco vértebras caudais livres e pelo pigóstilo (formado por três vértebras caudais fusionadas) e, apesar de diferenças pontuais, o esqueleto apendicular torácico e pélvico se mostrou muito semelhante ao observado para outros gêneros de aves e, inclusive, não foi possível observar dimorfismo sexual através das características anatômicas dos esqueletos dos papagaios trabalhados.

O USO DA MICROBIOLOGIA COMO FERRAMENTA PARA A CONSERVAÇÃO DE AVES AMEAÇADAS: DADOS PRELIMINARES PARA O PAPAGAIO-DE-CARA-ROXA, Amazona brasiliensis (Aves: Psittacidae) NO PARANÁ

Amazona brasiliensis, também conhecido popularmente como papagaio-de-cara-roxa, é uma espécie de Psittacidae endêmica da Mata Atlântica distribuída entre o litoral sul de São Paulo e o litoral Norte de Santa Catarina. Este estudo foi concentrado no estado do Paraná, visando uma prévia caracterização do perfil sanitário natural em filhotes da população por meio de análises microbiológicas. O estudo epidemiológico de uma espécie ameaçada inicia-se com a determinação dos agentes infecciosos comuns na população, que provavelmente co-evoluíram com a espécie e representam baixo risco aos espécimes de vida livre. Do total de colônias isoladas quase 75% foram positivas para a família Enterobacteriaceae. Normalmente, a microbiota entérica de psitacídeos é composta por micro-organismos Gram-positivos, porém a alta porcentagem de Gram-negativas isoladas pode ser explicada pela diferença entre a composição microbiana de adultos e filhotes. Seria interessante um estudo mais detalhado para uma eventual comparação entre possíveis sinais clínicos e micro-organismos presentes em cada indivíduo amostrado.

Hematologic and Total Plasma Protein Values in Free-Living Red-tailed Amazon Parrot Nestlings (Amazona brasiliensis) in Paraná State, Brazil.

The red-tailed Amazon parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) is an endangered psittacid species that is endemic in the south and southeast Brazilian Atlantic coastal region. Hematologic evaluation is important to monitor the health of these birds, and information about laboratory values for this species is scarce. Hematologic and total plasma protein profiles were determined for 33 free-living nestling parrots in Paraná state, Brazil. Parrots were temporarily removed from the nest and manually restrained to record body weight and collect blood samples. Mean body weight was <400 g in 13 birds (group 1) and >400 g in 20 birds (group 2). Significantly higher levels of mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentrations, white blood cell counts, monocytes, and basophils were observed in younger birds (group 1). A stress leukogram (high white blood cell and heterophil count) was found in all nestlings, suggesting stress induced by capture and restraint. Parameters obtained in this study will be essential to assess the physiologic and pathologic condition of wild parrots, to evaluate the effects of environmental changes on their health, and to contribute to conservation efforts of this endangered species.

Molecular detection of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli in asymptomatic captive psittacines

Psittaciformes are one of the most endangered groups of birds, and several Brazilian species are classified between vulnerable and critically endangered. It is thus necessary to identify agents that cause infections in captive wild animals and to assess the risks posed thereof and to design interventions to minimize the possibility of disease outbreaks, leading to the conservation of endangered species. The purpose of this study was to identify enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) cloacal isolates from asymptomatic psittacines in captivity and evaluate the distribution of the EPEC pathotype. Cloacal swabs were obtained from 46 asymptomatic birds, and resulting isolates were tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of the attaching and effacing gene (eae) and bundle-forming pilus structural gene (bfpA) of EPEC. Samples from several species were tested, and three samples were found to be positive for the eae and bfpA genes and characterized as typical EPEC. This is the first report of this pathotype in asymptomatic psittacines. Although certain E. coli strains are more pathogenic than others, various factors should be considered when determining the potential of E. coli isolates to cause disease in captive psittacines. Birds that are positive for the EPEC (typical) strain could be zoonotic sources of infection, and may have acquired these strains through contact with humans or domestic animals. These findings may also be valuable for the long-term management of endangered species ex situ as one EPEC sample was isolated from a Red-tailed Amazon (Amazona brasiliensis).

Annual pattern of fecal corticoid excretion in captive Red-tailed parrots (Amazona brasiliensis)

Annual patterns of fecal corticoid excretion were analyzed in the threatened Red-tailed parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) in captivity. Corticoid concentration over the 15 months of the study (mean +/- standard error, 12.6 +/- 0.32 ng g(-1), n = 585) was lowest around May (the southern Fall), and greatest around September (late winter), just prior to their normal breeding period. Corticoid excretion follows a seasonal pattern best explained by reproductive cycles rather than climate, although climate may be involved in the timing of corticoid excretion. Fecal corticoids also show promise as a tool to measure stress levels. We demonstrate that fecal corticoid measurement is a simple, yet efficient method for monitoring adrenocortical activity in captive, and perhaps wild, parrots. Monitoring adrenocortical activity can inform researchers about imposed stress in captivity, whether pair-bonds are forming in captive birds, and of the timing of breeding both in captivity and in nature.

A conservação do papagaio-da-cara-roxa (Amazona brasiliensis) no estado do Paraná: uma experiência de Educação Ambiental no ensino formal

No presente trabalho, avaliou-se a experiência de Educação Ambiental do "Projeto de Conservação do Papagaio-da-Cara-Roxa (Amazona brasiliensis)", no ensinoformal, realizado pela Sociedade de Pesquisa em Vida Selvagem e Educação Ambiental (SPVS), no litoral norte do Estado do Paraná. A experiência teve o intuito de fomentar, tanto no corpo docente quando no corpo discente, a discussão sobre valores e princípios que norteiam as relações homem/natureza, desenvolvendo-se, assim, uma interação mais responsável com o meio ambiente. Foram desenvolvidos módulos-educativos sobre o papagaio-da-cara-roxa e seu ambiente, direcionados a 795 estudantes do ensino fundamental, nos Municípios de Paranaguá e Guaraqueçaba. Para analisar a eficácia das atividades, os estudantes responderam a testes antes e depois do processo educativo que mediram mudanças obtidas com relação ao incremento de conhecimento, postura e valorização do papagaio-da-cara-roxa e de seu ambiente. Os resultados indicaram que a utilização do exemplo de uma espécie, ameaçada de extinção e que ocorre próximo às comunidades envolvidas no processo de conservação, serviu de base para a associação do tema específico para com uma realidade ambiental mais ampla e contextualizada localmente.

Molecular markers for population genetic analyses in the family Psittacidae (Psittaciformes, Aves)

The selection of molecular markers for population studies is an important tool for biodiversity conservation. The family Psittacidae contains many endangered and vulnerable species and we tested three kinds of molecular markers for their potential use in population studies of five psitacid species: 43 hyacinth macaws (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), 42 blue-and-yellow macaws (Ara ararauna), 23 red-and-green macaws (Ara chloroptera), 19 red-spectacled amazons (Amazona pretrei); and 18 red-tailed amazons (Amazona brasiliensis). We tested 21 clones from a genomic library of golden conure (Guarouba guarouba) minisatellites and 12 pairs of microsatellite primers developed for the domestic chicken (Gallus gallus) and A. hyacinthinus. We also tested seven tetranucleotide repeat primers for their ability to amplify regions between microsatellite loci (inter simple sequence repeats, ISSRs). We were able to select seven markers that were variable in different degrees for three species (A. hyacinthinus, A. chloroptera and A. ararauna). The mini and microsatellites produced more polymorphic patterns than the ISSRs. The genetic variability of the species studied seems to be correlated with their endangered status.

Variability in roost size in an Amazona parrot: implications for roost monitoring

Roost counts may be a useful method for assessing and monitoring parrot populations as long as counting regimes can detect real differences in abundance above the noise of daily variability in roost size. We studied a roost of up to 85 Red-tailed Amazons (Amazona brasiliensis) for 28 consecutive mornings and evenings from 12 July to 7 August 2001, and recorded bird behavior and associated weather data. The roost declined significantly over the survey period as the breeding season drew nearer. There was no significant difference between evening and morning roost counts, but we suggest that as long as misty mornings are avoided, morning roost counts were more effective as birds left more quickly and predictably. It took longer for birds to arrive on evenings when the roost was large, but birds left quicker in the morning when there were large numbers in the roost. Weather influenced both roost size and timing of arrival, with larger than expected numbers in the roost, and birds arriving later in the afternoons of sunny, warm days. We tested the reliability of four roost counting regimes: counts from five consecutive nights, five counts, one every fourth night, five nights picked at random, and 10 randomly picked nights. Counts from every fourth day performed significantly worse than all the other regimes in estimating the mean numbers in the roost. The 10-d random sampling regime performed significantly better than the 5-d regime in detecting very large roosts which occurred occasionally through the month.

Behaviour of Red-tailed amazons

The Endangered Red-tailed amazon Amazona brasiliensis has had limited breeding success in captivity to date. Pair incompatibility may be a contributory factor and stronger pair bonds might be achieved by placing a group of birds in a communal aviary where they are free to choose their own mates. At Loro Parque Fundación 2.3 adult Red-tailed amazons, two of which had been maintained as a pair but not produced fertile eggs, were placed in an aviary together and specific behaviours were recorded during free mate choice. Interactive behaviours and inter-individual distances clearly indicate that four individuals formed bonded pairs, one soon after introduction and the other immediately following removal of the first pair. The results also show that, when offered a free choice of mate, the original pair did not re-form.

The European Endangered Species Programme (EEP) for Red-tailed amazon

In 1994 the European Endangered Species Programme (EEP) for the Red-tailed amazon Amazona brasiliensis was founded to facilitate captive-breeding in the face of increasing threats to the species in the wild from deforestation, tourism and poaching. There are c. 300 captive A. brasiliensis in Brazil and the EEP is collaborating on the development of a Brazilian studbook in order to co-ordinate captive-breeding and establish a self-sustaining captive population. The EEP founder members also developed the ‘Amazon Connection’ to support collaborative in situ conservation projects, for example, ‘Project Cara-Roxa’. The education programmes, public-awareness campaigns, ecological surveys and threats which have been identified are discussed.

Ecology and conservation of the Red-tailed AmazonAmazona brasiliensisin south-eastern Brazil

SummaryThe Red-tailed AmazonAmazona brasiliensiswas found to be restricted to a complex mosaic of forests growing on the narrow coastal plain of eastern Brazil. The species depends on habitat heterogeneity for both food and breeding. In Sào Paulo state the 1,550 individuals are divided into 16 populations. The global total of the species may be around 3,600 birds. They feed mainly on fruits, flowers and nectar, also occasionally insects. Most nests are found in permanently flooded forest, apparently because of greater cavity availability. Poaching has had a great impact and is the most immediate threat to the species.O Papagaio de Cara-RoxaAmazona brasiliensisé restrito a um complexo mosaico de florestas na estreita planicie costeirano leste do Brasil. Os papagaios dependem da heterogeneidade do ambiente tanto para sua alimentaçāo como reproducao. No estado de São Paulo existem 1,550 papagaios, divididos em 16 grupos. A populaçāo total da espécie pode ser de 3,600 individuos. Os papagaios se alimentam principalmente de frutos, flores e néctar, com alguns casos de insetivoria. A maioria dos ninhos foi encontrada em florestas permanentemente inundadas (caxetais), aparentemente devido a maior disponibilidade de cavidades. A captura para o comércio ilegal tern tido um grande impacto sobre a espécie e é a maior ameaça à sua sobrevivéncia.