Amazona Research Articles

Survey of Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Sarcocystis neurona antibodies in wild red-tailed Amazon parrots (Amazona brasiliensis).

Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Sarcocystis neurona are obligate intracellular parasites within the phylum Apicomplexa. The red-tailed Amazon parrot (Amazona brasiliensis) is a near-threatened species of psittacine that is endemic to the Atlantic Forest of Brazil and has been designated as a bioindicator because of its sensitivity to environmental qualitative status and changes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of antibodies against T. gondii, N. caninum and S. neurona in wild red-tailed Amazon parrot nestlings on Rasa Island, Brazil. Blood samples were collected from 51 parrots and plasma samples were stored at - 20 °C until immunofluorescence antibody tests (IFAT) were performed. Antigen slides were prepared using tachyzoites of T. gondii (RH strain) and, N. caninum (NC-1 strain) and using merozoites of S. neurona (SNR37 strain). Plasma samples were tested at initial dilutions of 1:16 for T. gondii, 1:50 for N. caninum and 1:5 for S. neurona. An anti-chicken antibody conjugated with FITC was used as a secondary antibody at 1:50 dilution. No antibodies for any of these three protozoa were found, thus suggesting that these wild red-tailed Amazon parrot nestlings had not been exposed to these parasites.

Taxonomic review of the Amazonian millipede genus Parastenonia Hoffman, 1977 and description of a new species from iron-ore caves (Polydesmida: Chelodesmidae)

ABSTRACTThe Amazonian genus Parastenonia Hoffman, 1977 is here revised. The species P. carajas sp. nov. is described from Brazilian iron-ore caves and P. aurae (Schubart, 1947) is considered junior synonym of P. parae (Cook, 1895). In addition, the known geographic distribution of the genus is presented with the inclusion of new occurrence data.http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:CCBEED10-DCB4-48C9-A71D-CED3462DD72A

Morphologic and quantitative evaluation of bone marrow aspirates from Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis).

Bone marrow aspirate assessments provide valuable information about hematopoietic status and hematologic disease. Hematopoietic cell differentials and morphologies have been anecdotally described in psittacines, but quantitative studies are lacking. We aimed to determine differential cell counts and calculate granulocyte:erythroid (G:E) ratios in bone marrow aspirates from Hispaniolan Amazon parrots and report representative morphologies of the hematopoietic cells. Bone marrow aspirates were collected from 32 clinically healthy, captive, parrots. Peripheral blood was obtained for CBCs. Bone marrow differential cell counts (%) were determined by counting 500 cells on modified Wright's-stained smears. G:E ratios were calculated. Representative images of hematopoietic cells at all stages of development were taken. Of the 32 parrots sampled, 17 bone marrow samples were of sufficient cellularity and quality for evaluation. Erythroid cells comprised 68.9±8.6% (total±SD) of the hematopoietic cells and consisted primarily of early- and late-stage polychromatophilic rubricytes (43.6±2.1% of total erythroid cells). Granulocytic cells comprised 28.1±3.8% of the hematopoietic cells and consisted primarily of mature and band heterophils (11.9±5.2% and 6.5±3.4%, respectively, of total granulocytic cells). A unique morphologic finding in avian progranulocytes was the presence of multiple different granules. The G:E ratio was 0.4±0.2 (median 0.4, range 0.1-0.9). Thrombocyte lineage cells could not be reliably identified and were not counted. CBC results were largely within expected limits. The low G:E ratios observed could be normal in this species; however, these ratios could be affected by factors related to sampling and cell identification. These findings will be a valuable resource for the diagnostic evaluation of clinical bone marrow samples from Hispaniolan Amazon parrots and could serve as a general reference for psittacine bone marrow evaluation.

Exotic parrots breeding in urban tree cavities: nesting requirements, geographic distribution, and potential impacts on cavity nesting birds in southeast Florida

BackgroundExotic parrots have established breeding populations in southeast Florida, including several species that nest in tree cavities. We aimed to determine the species identity, nest site requirements, relative nest abundance, geographic distribution, and interactions of parrots with native cavity-nesting bird species.MethodsWe searched Miami-Dade County, Florida, and nearby areas for natural cavities and holes excavated by woodpeckers, recording attributes of potential nest trees. We inspected all cavities with an elevated video inspection system to determine occupancy by parrots or other birds. We mapped nearly 4000 citizen science observations of parrots in our study area corresponding to our study period, and used these to construct range maps, comparing them to our nesting observations.ResultsNot all parrots reported or observed in our study area were actively breeding. Some parrots were observed at tree cavities, which previous studies have suggested is evidence of reproduction, but our inspections with an elevated video inspection system suggest they never initiated nesting attempts. Several parrot species did successfully nest in tree cavities, Red-masked Parakeets (Psittacara erythrogenys) and Orange-winged Parrots (Amazona amazonica) being the most common (n = 7 and 6 nests, respectively). These two parrots had similar nesting requirements, but Orange-winged Parrots use nests with larger entrance holes, which they often enlarge. Geographic analysis of nests combined with citizen science data indicate that parrots are limited to developed areas. The most common parrots were less abundant cavity nesters than the native birds which persist in Miami’s urban areas, and far less abundant than the invasive European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris).ConclusionsExotic parrots breeding elsewhere in the world have harmed native cavity-nesting birds through interference competition, but competitive interference in southeast Florida is minimized by the urban affinities of parrots in this region. The relative abundance and geographic distribution suggest that these parrots are unlikely to invade adjacent wilderness areas.

Effects of Fluorescent Lighting Versus Sunlight Exposure on Calcium, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Feather Destructive Behavior in Hispaniolan Amazon Parrots (Amazona ventralis).

Low exposure to ultraviolet light, and resulting vitamin D deficiency, has recently been linked to autism spectrum disorder in people. Captive psittacine birds that exhibit feather destructive behavior share similarities with people affected by autism spectrum disorder, such as repetitive (stereotypies) and self-harming behaviors. The metabolic and psychological effects of housing pet parrots indoors without ultraviolet B lighting are not typically considered in animal husbandry or veterinary care. Calcifediol (serum vitamin D), ionized calcium, and ionized magnesium levels were compared between 10 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis) housed indoors and 10 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots historically housed outdoors. Although ionized calcium and magnesium levels were not significantly different, calcifediol levels were significantly greater in the colony of birds housed outdoors. Further, these 2 research colonies of individually housed birds were feather scored. Subjectively, the birds that were housed indoors had greater self-inflicted feather damage than did those housed outdoors; however, the difference was not statistically significant.

Inbreeding Fact of Exotic Wild Psittacids in Bangladesh

Captive breeding of short-tailed parrots (4) and long-tailed parakeets (16) out of 20 species were remarkable. These colourful birds were very nice in common appearance. Casual cages were used for their breeding especially for smaller birds. Parrots and parakeets are mainly reared as hobby and due to remarkable production and public acceptance only budgies are commercially abundant in Bangladesh. Parrot, Parakeet, mutated form of Ring-necked Parakeet, Lorikeet, Lovebird, Budgie, Conure, Rosella, Amazon Parrot, Cockatiel, and Cockatoo are common in all pet shop. In aviary, Budgie rearing is common then Lovebird, Cockatiel, and Macaw. Psittacids breeding accessories and its care are more complicated and vary from species to species. In breeding season most of the birds are shown aggressiveness to their pair and human too. Colourful feather, huge variety, nice voice, activeness and for talking ability these birds are excellent pet. Mortality rate of parrots and parakeets were found high. This study was performed in the year 2019

Structural biology and evolution in the monotypic Amazonian palm Wendlandiella (Arecoideae: Chamaedoreeae)

Stauffer, F.W., J. Eychenne, N. Ortega & H. Balslev (2019). Structural biology and evolution in the monotypic Amazonian palm Wendlandiella (Arecoideae: Chamaedoreeae) Candollea 74: 15–30. In English, English abstract. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15553/c2019v741a3The structural biology is here, for the first time, described in the Amazonian palm genus Wendlandiella Dammer, a poorly known and monotypic member of the early divergent tribe Chamaedoreeae Drude (Arecoideae). Wendlandiella gracilis Dammer includes three varieties: var. gracilis, var. polyclada (Burret) A.J. Hend., and var. simplicifrons (Burret) A.J. Hend. In contrast to the overwhelmingly monoecious condition in this subfamily, Wendlandiella together with the species-rich genus Chamaedorea Willd., presents a dioecious reproductive syndrome. The terrestrial root system, the leaves and the stems of Wendlandiella display a relatively simple architecture and vegetative multiplication observed in wild populations may be regarded as an important mechanism of reproduction. Flowers in Wendlandiella are arranged in a complex floral cluster known as acervulus, clearly deviating from the floral triad characterizing most other members of the subfamily. Our study describes the structure of the acervulus in inflorescences of both sexes. The lack of a nectariferous epithelium in the gynoecium and the pistillode suggests that Wendlandiella is wind pollinated, which is a rare pollination mechanism in palms. Wendlandiella is proposed as an interesting model to test the different evolutionary pathways to dioecy in palms.Received: September 14, 2018. Accepted: January 26, 2019. First published online: March 28, 2019.

Use of endodontic paper points and Schirmer strips for measurement of tear flow in red-lored parrots (<em>Amazona autumnalis</em>)

Ocular diseases are sub-diagnosed in bird species, partly because of limited diagnostic methods and lack of reference data. Placement of Schirmer tear test strips in the bottom of the conjunctival sac of birds for tear flow measurement can prove to be difficult, whereas paper tips commonly used for dental procedures may be easier to use, due to a more adequate size and shape. Hence, the aim of this study was to assess and compare tear flow values, using ABC Dental® # 30 color paper tips and TearFloTM Test strips in Red-lored Parrots (Amazona autumnalis) (n = 26). Captive birds of undetermined sex were housed in groups under similar environmental conditions and fed the same diet. All animals were deemed healthy through remote and physical examinations. Average tear flow values of 0.6365 ± 0.032 cm/min and 0.5942 ± 0.032 cm/min were obtained with the Schirmer strips test and the endodontic tips respectively. Lack of difference in observed values between measurement techniques (p = 0.3629) indicates that endodontic tips may be a good alternative for tear flow assessment in Red-lored parrots. In addition, endodontic tips are more cost effective and may be less invasive. This study stresses the need to establish species specific ophthalmic reference values for clinical practice in birds, since differences have been reported even in specimens within the same genus.Figure 1. Measurement of tear flow in Red-lored parrots using TearFloTM Test Strips

Genomes of Three Closely Related Caribbean Amazons Provide Insight for Species History and Conservation.

Islands have been used as model systems for studies of speciation and extinction since Darwin published his observations about finches found on the Galapagos. Amazon parrots inhabiting the Greater Antillean Islands represent a fascinating model of species diversification. Unfortunately, many of these birds are threatened as a result of human activity and some, like the Puerto Rican parrot, are now critically endangered. In this study we used a combination of de novo and reference-assisted assembly methods, integrating it with information obtained from related genomes to perform genome reconstruction of three amazon species. First, we used whole genome sequencing data to generate a new de novo genome assembly for the Puerto Rican parrot (Amazona vittata). We then improved the obtained assembly using transcriptome data from Amazona ventralis and used the resulting sequences as a reference to assemble the genomes Hispaniolan (A. ventralis) and Cuban (Amazona leucocephala) parrots. Finally, we, annotated genes and repetitive elements, estimated genome sizes and current levels of heterozygosity, built models of demographic history and provided interpretation of our findings in the context of parrot evolution in the Caribbean.

Stress in captive Blue-fronted parrots (Amazona aestiva): the animalists' tale.

Understanding stress physiology is crucial for species management because high levels of stress can reduce reproduction and the individual's ability to face threats to survive. One of the most popular methods for non-invasive monitoring of animal endocrine status is the glucocorticoid (GC) metabolite measurements, which can provide important information about how animals are affected by their surrounding environment. Here, we carried out the biological validation of corticosterone enzyme immunoassays (EIAs), which together with a cortisol EIA was used to quantified the concentrations of urofaecal GC metabolites (uGCMs) in wild and captive Blue-fronted amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva). Urofaecal GC concentrations were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in free-living parrots (157.9 ± 18.5ng cortisol/g and 61.14 ± 23.5ng corticosterone/g dry urofaecal sample) than in those kept in captivity, which showed the comparable levels of GC metabolites independently of the management system applied. The higher uGCM levels obtained in the wild population point to an adaptive response for survival and species propagation in a more challenging environment, in comparison with captive animals. Furthermore, the lower uGCM concentrations in captive parrots may indicate an adaptive capacity of the species A. aestiva to captivity and its potential as a legal pet. The corticosterone EIA applied in this study proved to be an effective technique for the adrenocortical activity monitoring in this species. We discuss our findings considering the management and destiny given to wild-caught birds that are kept in confinement or returned to nature.

What is this bird? The quest to identify parrot remains from the Heyward-Washington House, Charleston, South Carolina

ABSTRACTExcavations in the 1970s at the ca. 1772 Heyward-Washington House in Charleston, South Carolina, produced a rich and diverse archaeological assemblage spanning the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Among the vertebrate remains are four bones from a large member of the parrot family. We now believe the bird was a blue-fronted or turquoise-fronted amazon parrot (Psittacidae: Amazona aestiva), an animal originating in South America. Over the decades, we have studied the zooarchaeological signature of social identity in Charleston, the evolving urban environment, and the vast trade networks of the colonial port city, all of which are embodied in the remains of this single bird. The parrot leads to a discussion of social roles of captive birds in early Charleston, the eclectic interests of city residents, and the city’s global trade networks.

Evaluation of Topical Medications, Lavage Solutions, and Laser Therapy for Treating Open Wounds Induced in Blue-fronted Amazon Parrots, Amazona Aestiva

This study aimed to evaluate topical medications, lavage solutions and laser therapy for treating open clean wounds induced in captive blue-fronted Amazon parrots. Twenty-four blue-fronted Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva) were divided into 6 groups according to the wound treatment: Group DEX—dexpanthenol 5% ointment; Group RIC—ointment of Ricinus communis oil; Group CHL—chlorhexidine digluconate solution 1%; Group SSS—0.9% sterile saline solution; Group LLL—low-level laser therapy and Group CON—no treatment, control. Four full-thickness wounds were induced in the front part of the chest area with the aid of an 8-mm punch. In each parrot, the 4 wounds received the same treatment, every 48 hours until healing, according to the group. In all groups, on postoperative days 5, 14 and 21, biopsies were taken for histological examination. One of the 4 wounds was not submitted to biopsy but rather was used for wound size measurements. Group CON presented the longest healing time and differed statistically from the other groups. Excluding Group CON, groups CHL and SSS showed no significant difference. Microscopically, groups DEX and CHL showed higher fibroplasia and epithelialization compared to the other groups on day 21. In conclusion, the best results were achieved macroscopically through lavage solutions, chlorhexidine digluconate solution or sterile saline solution; however, chlorhexidine digluconate was superior microscopically. The laser therapy and dexpanthenol ointment showed intermediate results, whereas the Ricinus communis oil showed the worst results. It is unclear the exact amount of energy received from the tissue since laser was administered in non-contact mode, and further studies at different laser settings are warranted.

Detección serológica de Chlamydophila psittaci en psitácidos en cautiverio de la Región del Biobío, Chile

Los loros (Aves: Psitacidae), además de ser una de las mascotas de mayor incremento en Chile en los últimos años, constituyen importantes reservorios de patógenos, incluída la bacteria zoonótica Chlamydophila psittaci. El objetivo del estudio fue determinar la presencia de anticuerpos séricos contra C. psittaci en 30 loros provenientes de tres criaderos privados de la región del Biobío, mediante la detección de anticuerpos tipo IgG a través un ELSA comercial (ELISA InmunoComb®). Tres loros adultos (3/24) resultaron seropositivos (10% de prevalencia) y ningún juvenil (0/6). Los psitacidos positivos corespondieron a una cachaña (Enicognathus ferrugineus), un choroy (Enicognathus leptorhynchus) y una amazona (Amazonas pretrei), todos provenientes del mismo criadero. La cachaña y el choroy son especies nativas de Chile.

True Coelomic Hernia and Herniorrhaphy in a Yellow-crowned Amazon Parrot (Amazona ochrocephala)

An 8-year-old male yellow crowned Amazon parrot ( Amazona ochrocephala) was presented for an 8-month history of intermittent regurgitation, anorexia, and lethargy along with a 3-week history of a soft tissue mass cranial to the vent. Examination revealed a small soft tissue mass, approximately 2 cm in diameter, within the body wall of the coelomic cavity with no discoloration of the surrounding tissue. Full body computed tomography (CT) revealed a defect in the body wall on the ventral coelom from the right paramedian location extending to the right side, which contained intestines. Surgical exploration allowed for reduction of the coelomic hernia, which was encased in fibrous tissue and contained a well-vascularized and motile loop of bowel. The hernia sac was excised before closing the body wall in a simple interrupted pattern. Three months postoperatively, the bird was reported to be doing well at home with no further episodes of regurgitation or anorexia.

Preliminary Findings of Structure and Expression of Opioid Receptor Genes in a Peregrine Falcon ( Falco peregrinus), a Snowy Owl ( Bubo scandiacus), and a Blue-fronted Amazon Parrot ( Amazona aestiva).

To further knowledge of the physiology of opioid receptors in birds, the structure and expression of the μ-, δ-, and κ-opioid receptor genes were studied in a peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus), a snowy owl ( Bubo scandiacus), and a blue-fronted Amazon parrot ( Amazona aestiva). Tissue samples were obtained from birds that had been euthanatized for poor release prognosis or medical reasons. Samples were taken from the brain (telencephalon, thalamus, pituitary gland, cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata, mesencephalon), the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglions, and plantar foot skin. Messenger RNA was recovered, and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed to generate complementary DNA (cDNA) sequences. Gene structures were documented by directly comparing cDNA sequences with recently published genomic sequences for the peregrine falcon and the blue-fronted Amazon parrot or by comparisons with genomic sequences of related species for the snowy owl. Structurally, the avian μ-opioid receptor messenger RNA (mRNA) species were complex, displaying differential splicing, alternative stop codons, and multiple polyadenylation signals. In comparison, the structure of the avian κ-receptor mRNA was relatively simple. In contrast to what is seen in humans, the avian δ-receptor mRNA structure was found to be complex, demonstrating novel 3-prime coding and noncoding exons not identified in mammals. The role of the δ-opioid receptor merits further investigation in avian species.

Detection of Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamases from a Pet Blue-Fronted-Amazon Parrot (Amazona aestiva)

Background: The indiscriminate use of antibiotics both in humans and in animals, has contributed to the development of bacterial resistance. One of the key mechanisms in the resistance of enterobacteria to antibiotics is the production of extendedspectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs), which reduce the therapeutic options available. Several studies have been performed in different animal species in order to isolate and identify multidrug-resistant strains and determine their antibiotic sensitivity profile. The purpose of this study was to detect ESBL-producing enterobacteria in isolates from a pet blue-fronted amazon parrot.Case: A 16-year-old pet blue-fronted-amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva) weighing 0.445 kg, from the city of Presidente Castelo Branco, Paraná, Brazil, was admitted into a specialized veterinary clinic in the city of Maringá. This parrot was presented with agitation and aggressive behavior. It was fed with sunflower seeds, and its cage was small and unsanitary especially in the feeding and drinking areas, which were heavily contaminated with feces. The parrot had been diagnosed with acute sinusitis approximately one year prior, with a history of treatment with tylosin, thuya (a herbal remedy popularly used for fowl pox), and a mineral-vitamin complex. The clinical symptoms included dyspnea and bilateral increase of facial swelling, with a mass in the peri-nasal region. A membranous red tissue not related to the nictitating membrane was observed in the lower left eyelid. To obtain a better clinical evaluation, the bird was anesthetized with an intramuscular injection of dextroketamine 50 mg/kg (KetaminS+™). Subsequently, physical examination, head radiographic examinations, and an attempt at sinus draining were performed. The radiographic examinations showed a decreased amount of air in the nasal sinuses. For treatment, oral itraconazole and vitamin A were prescribed, and a dietary improvement, prioritizing the offering of fruits and industrialized food for parrots was proposed. Samples were collected from the cloaca and choanae by making rotating movements with compressed sterile swabs in the corresponding locations. All samples were kept in Amies transport media with activated coal and forwarded under refrigeration to the Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Public Health in the Post-Graduation Program in Animal Sciences with Emphasis in Bioactive Products at Universidade Paranaense (UNIPAR).Discussion: The samples were subjected to phenotypic antimicrobial sensitivity tests and phenotypic testing for detecting ESBL-producing strains. Escherichia coli was identified and isolated from the cloacal sample. Phenotypic tests for antimicrobial sensitivity, detected resistance to the following antimicrobials: ceftriaxone, ceftiofur, cefotaxime, cefepime, ampicillin, amoxicillin, amoxicillin + clavulanate, and tetracycline. The phenotypic test for detecting ESBL-producing strains was positive. The findings in this study had no relation with the clinical symptoms presented by the parrot. However, in the samples collected, it was possible to detect the presence of ESBL-producing Escherichia coli, indicating that this parrot had strains in its cloacal microbiota that were either multidrug-resistant or at a subclinical stage of an infection. This knowledge is important, since the presence of this bacteria in a pet represents an important factor in the dissemination of multidrug-resistant strains into the environment, as well as being a source of contamination for both humans and other animals.

Multigene phylogeny supports diversification of four-eyed fishes and one-sided livebearers (Cyprinodontiformes: Anablepidae) related to major South American geological events.

The high diversity of Neotropical fishes has been attributed to major South American palaeogeographic events, such as Andean uplift, rise of the Isthmus of Panama and marine transgressions. However, the unavailability of temporal information about evolution and diversification of some fish groups prevents the establishment of robust hypotheses about correlations between species diversification and proposed palaeogeographical events. One example is the Anablepidae, a family of teleost fishes found mostly in coastal habitats of Central and South America, but also in some inner river basins of South America. Historical aspects of the distribution patterns of the Anablepidae were never analysed and no accurate estimation of time of its origin and diversification is presently available. A multi-gene analysis was performed to estimate Anablepidae phylogenetic position, age and biogeography, comprising seven nuclear genes. The suborder Cyprinodontoidei was recovered in three major clades, one comprising all the Old World Cyprinodontoidei and two comprising New World lineages. Anablepidae was recovered as the sister group of the New World Poeciliidae, with the Amazonian genus Fluviphylax as their sister group. The ages found for the origin and diversification of Cyprinodontiformes were congruent with the pattern recorded for other vertebrate groups, with an origin anterior to the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) transition and diversification during the Paleogene. The age estimated for the split between the Atlantic and Pacific lineages of Anableps was congruent with the rise of Panamanian Isthmus. The results suggest Miocene marine transgressions as determinant to the current distribution of Jenynsia.

EFFECT OF ROUTINE HANDLING AND TRANSPORTATION ON BLOOD LEUKOCYTE CONCENTRATIONS AND PLASMA CORTICOSTERONE IN CAPTIVE HISPANIOLAN AMAZON PARROTS ( AMAZONA VENTRALIS).

Increased glucocorticoids cause a characteristic stress leukogram in mammalian taxa. It is assumed that avians exhibit a similar response, but to date, there have been no controlled studies to correlate serial endogenous corticosterone levels to hematologic values. An established flock of 18 Hispaniolan Amazon parrots ( Amazona ventralis) was used as a model in a crossover study. The treatment group was subjected to the stress of transport, restraint, and common clinical procedures with serial blood samples collected at 20-min intervals for hematology and corticosterone levels; the control group was sampled at the same intervals. Longitudinal data analysis was performed with linear mixed modeling. For all hematologic analytes, the baseline value had a significant positive effect on subsequent values (all P < 0.001). The white blood cell, heterophil, and eosinophil counts and heterophil to lymphocyte ratio increased over time in the treatment group, whereas it remained stable in the control group ( P = 0.016, P < 0.001, P < 0.001, P = 0.02, respectively, for the time*treatment effect). Lymphocyte absolute counts decreased over time, although not significantly; the decrease was significant for the relative lymphocyte count in the treatment group. Monocytes and basophils were not significantly altered. The treatment group had a higher mean corticosterone level overall than the control group by approximately 60% ( P = 0.008). The mean corticosterone level also increased over time in both groups by three- to fourfold ( P < 0.001) by 20 min then plateaued. These results demonstrate that some significant hematologic changes may arise with routine handling and transportation of birds and should be accounted for in hematologic interpretation of cell counts.

Effects of three fentanyl plasma concentrations on the minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis).

OBJECTIVE To determine effects of 3 plasma concentrations of fentanyl on the minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane (MACiso) and cardiovascular variables in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). ANIMALS 6 adult parrots. PROCEDURES In phase 1, anesthesia was induced and maintained with isoflurane; intermittent positive-pressure ventilation was provided. The MACiso was determined for each bird by use of a bracketing method and supramaximal electrical stimulus. Fentanyl (20 μg/kg) was administered IV, and blood samples were collected over time to measure plasma fentanyl concentrations for pharmacokinetic calculations. In phase 2, pharmacokinetic values for individual birds were used for administration of fentanyl to achieve target plasma concentrations of 8, 16, and 32 ng/mL. At each concentration, MACiso and cardiovascular variables were determined. Data were analyzed with mixed-effects multilevel linear regression analysis. RESULTS Mean ± SD fentanyl plasma concentrations were 0 ng/mL, 5.01 ± 1.53 ng/mL, 12.12 ± 3.58 ng/mL, and 24.93 ± 4.13 ng/mL, and MACiso values were 2.09 ± 0.17%, 1.45 ± 0.32%, 1.34 ± 0.31%, and 0.95 ± 0.14% for fentanyl target concentrations of 0, 8, 16, and 32 ng/mL, respectively. Fentanyl significantly decreased MACiso in a dose-dependent manner. Heart rate and blood pressure significantly decreased at all fentanyl doses, compared with values for MACiso at 0 ng of fentanyl/mL. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Fentanyl significantly decreased the MACiso in healthy Hispaniolan Amazon parrots, but this was accompanied by a depressive effect on heart rate and blood pressure that would need to be considered for application of this technique in clinical settings.

Pharmacokinetics of fentanyl after intravenous administration in isoflurane-anesthetized red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) and Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis).

OBJECTIVE To compare the disposition of fentanyl citrate after a single IV injection in isoflurane-anesthetized red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) and Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). ANIMALS 6 adult red-tailed hawks and 6 adult Hispaniolan Amazon parrots. PROCEDURES Anesthesia was induced and maintained with isoflurane; intermittent positive-pressure ventilation was provided. The minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane was determined for each bird by use of the bracketing method and a supramaximal electrical stimulus. Fentanyl (20 μg/kg) was administered IV. Arterial (red-tailed hawks) or jugular venous (Hispaniolan Amazon parrots) blood samples were obtained immediately before and 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120, 180, 240, and 480 minutes (red-tailed hawks) and 1, 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 120, and 180 minutes (Hispaniolan Amazon parrots) after fentanyl administration. RESULTS A 3-compartment and a 2-compartment model best described fentanyl pharmacokinetics in red-tailed hawks and Hispaniolan Amazon parrots, respectively. Median apparent volume of the central compartment and volume of distribution at steady state were 222 mL/kg and 987 mL/kg, respectively, for the red-tailed hawks and 5,108 mL/kg and 13,079 mL/kg, respectively, for the Hispaniolan Amazon parrots. Median clearance and elimination half-life were 8.9 mL/min/kg and 90.22 minutes, respectively, for the red-tailed hawks and 198.8 mL/min/kg and 51.18 minutes, respectively, for the Hispaniolan Amazon parrots. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Pharmacokinetic results for fentanyl in isoflurane-anesthetized red-tailed hawks and Hispaniolan Amazon parrots indicated large differences and should strongly discourage extrapolation of doses between these 2 species.