Amateur Triathletes Research Articles

Data base of Characterization of self-reported sleep quality in male and female trained amateur triathletes: a descriptive study

Sleep quality is a determining factor for the performance and health of athletes in general. The aim of the present study was to characterize the sleep quality in male and female trained amateur triathletes aged 20 to 59 years. A survey was conducted with 151 trained amateur triathletes, 108 male (38.6 ±8.1 years, triathlon training experience 5.8 ±4.3years, training frequency 6.3 ±0.9 days per week) and 43 female (39.3 ±7.6 years, triathlon training experience 4.8 ±3.3years, training frequency 6.5 ±0.6 days per week). The sleep quality was measured using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index-Br (PSQI-Br), total values below 05 points indicate good sleepers, and values equal to or greater than 05 points indicate poor sleepers. Data from the subscales were analyzed using absolute and relative frequency. The other data in order to characterize sleep quality were analyzed with median, mean, standard deviation, standard error, and 95% Confidence Interval of mean. Male and female triathletes have poor sleep quality (values equal or greater than 05 points), that can have negative effects on health and performance. In conclusion, all triathletes regardless of gender and age group have poor sleep quality.

Characterization of self-reported sleep quality in male and female trained amateur triathletes: a descriptive study

Sleep quality is a determining factor for the performance and health of athletes in general. The aim of the present study was to characterize the sleep quality in male and female trained amateur triathletes aged 20 to 59 years. A survey was conducted with 151 trained amateur triathletes, 108 male (38.6 ±8.1 years, triathlon training experience 5.8 ±4.3years, training frequency 6.3 ±0.9 days per week) and 43 female (39.3 ±7.6 years, triathlon training experience 4.8 ±3.3years, training frequency 6.5 ±0.6 days per week). The sleep quality was measured using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index-Br (PSQI-Br), total values below 05 points indicate good sleepers, and values equal to or greater than 05 points indicate poor sleepers. Data from the subscales were analyzed using absolute and relative frequency. The other data in order to characterize sleep quality were analyzed with median, mean, standard deviation, standard error, and 95% Confidence Interval of mean. Male and female triathletes have poor sleep quality (values equal or greater than 05 points), that can have negative effects on health and performance. In conclusion, all triathletes regardless of gender and age group have poor sleep quality.

Maximal Oxygen Uptake, Muscular Oxidative Capacity, and Ventilatory Threshold in Amateur Triathletes: Eight-Month Training Follow-Up.

Endurance sports performance is influenced by several factors, including maximal oxygen uptake (⩒O2max), the percentage of ⩒O2max that can be sustained in endurance events, running economy, and body composition. Traditionally, ⩒O2max can be measured as an absolute value, adjusted for body mass, reflecting the athlete's central capacity (maximal cardiac output), or adjusted for lean mass (LM), reflecting the athlete's peripheral capacity (muscular oxidative capacity). The present study aims to evaluate absolute, total body mass, and lower limb LM-adjusted ⩒O2max, ventilatory thresholds (VT), respiratory compensation points (RCP), and body composition during two training periods separated by 8 months. Thirteen competitive amateur triathletes [seven men (40.7±13.7 years old, 76.3±8.3kg, and 173.9±4.8cm) and six women (43.5±6.9 years old, 55.0±2.7kg, 164.9±5.2cm)] were evaluated for body composition with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and ⩒O2max, VT, RPC, and maximal aerobic speed (MAS) with a cardiorespiratory maximal treadmill test. The absolute ⩒O2max (p = 0.003, d = 1.05), body mass-adjusted ⩒O2max (p < 0.001, d = 1.2859), and MAS (p = 0.047, d = 0.6139) values differed significantly across evaluation periods. Lower limb LM-adjusted ⩒O2max (p = 0.083, d = -0.0418), %⩒O2max at VT (p = 0.541, d = -0.1746), speed at VT (p = 0.337, d = -0.2774), % ⩒O2max at RCP (p = 0.776, d = 0.0806), and speed at RCP (p = 0.436, d = 0.2234) showed no difference. The sensitivities of ⩒O2max adjusted for body mass and ⩒O2max adjusted for LM to detect changes in physical training state differ. Furthermore, decreases in physical fitness level, as evaluated by ⩒O2max values, are not accompanied by changes in VT.

Comparison of bone mineral density between female amateur triathletes and nonathletes: A cross-sectional study.

Physical inactivity is considered an important risk factor for osteoporosis, however, some athletes performing extremely high training volumes can also develop bone mass loss. Moreover, the effect of total body mass or body surface area on bone mineral density remains controversial. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the absolute bone mineral density and bone mineral density adjusted to body surface area between amateur triathletes and nonactive women. Forty-two healthy women (23 amateur triathletes and 19 nonactive individuals) were evaluated for body composition using a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry system. Compared to nonactive women, amateur triathletes exhibited lower body mass index (p < 0.001), lower bone mineral density (p < 0.001), and body surface area (p < 0.001). However, bone mineral density adjusted by body surface area in the triathletes was higher than in the nonactive women (p = 0.03). These findings showed that amateur triathles presented lower absolute bone mineral density, but higher bone mineral density adjusted to body surface area. Future studies are recommended to identify if the higher bone mineral density adjusted to body surface area are associated with a lower bone fragility.

Origin and age group of the fastest amateur triathletes competing in ‘Ironman Hawaii’ between 2003 and 2019

Little is known about the prevalent nationalities among the best-placed athletes participating in “Ironman Hawaii.” Moreover, the age at which athletes achieve their best performances remains unclear. The present study aimed to compare the prevalent nationalities among the athletes, their respective placement among the top five, and the performance difference between the different age groups in ‘Ironman Hawaii’ from 2003 to 2019. A total of 30 354 amateur triathletes were selected from the Obsessed Triathlete (OBSTRI) website. A “TOP 5” division filter was applied for further analysis, resulting in 1 851 athletes being included in this study. Among the male runners, Americans participated the most in Ironman events (39%), followed by Germans (10%). Among female runners, Americans participated the most (54%), followed by Australian runners (8%). Male Americans also featured most among the top five (30%), followed by Germans (16%). Female Americans were the most prevalent among the top five (47%), followed by Australian Americans (10%). There were no significant performance differences (p ​> ​0.05) between the 25–29 and 40–44 age groups for either sex. The 45–49 age group presented significantly worse performance than the 35–39 age group for both sexes (p ​< ​0.001). North Americans were the most performant and frequent participants in “Ironman Hawaii.” The expected performance decline due to aging was observed after 45 years in both sexes.

An Investigation of the Psychological Status of Amateur Athletes Before and After a Triathlon Competition

Triathlon is a multisport, endurance event which places significant psychological demands on athletes. To date, few studies have compared psychological states of triathletes before and after competition. Furthermore, there is a lack of research assessing psychological indicators of overtraining in triathletes. This study aimed to create a psychological profile of amateur athletes before and after a triathlon competition, and to investigate psychological symptoms of overtraining syndrome. Forty amateur triathletes were recruited to participate in this study. Participants completed the Profile of Mood States (POMS), Passion Scale (PS), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and General Self-Efficacy Scale (GES). Questionnaires were administered the day before a triathlon event, and then repeated the day after the competition. Athletes reported poor sleep quality, and mood states followed the iceberg profile (i.e., high vigor, and low anxiety, depression, anger, fatigue, tension, and confusion). Significantly higher pre-competition scores emerged for tension (pre: 8.85±5.4, post: 4.18±5.0, p &lt; 0 .001) and anger (pre: 3.57±3.8, post: 2.80±4.1, p = 0 .021). Correlational analyses performed using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient revealed that pre-competition sleepquality (r = -0.37, p = 0.019) and tension (r = -0.34, p = 0.031) were related to self-efficacy, and that tension (r = 0.47, p = 0.002), and fatigue (r = 0.57, p &lt; 0.001) were related to pre-competition sleep quality. Lower scores for pre-competition vigor (r = -0.40, p = 0.010) were associated with poorer sleep quality. The study highlights significant relationships with sleep quality, and potential indicators of overtraining syndrome in amateur triathletes. Experimental research analyzing the effects of interventions to target the highlighted psychological characteristics in amateur triathletes is recommended. Coaches and practitioners should monitor athletes’ sleep quality before competition to optimize performance and prevent overtraining syndrome.

Sex Differences in Maximal Oxygen Uptake Adjusted for Skeletal Muscle Mass in Amateur Endurance Athletes: A Cross Sectional Study.

Male athletes tend to outperform female athletes in several endurance sports. Maximum cardiac output can be estimated by maximal oxygen consumption (V˙O2max), and it has been established that men present V˙O2max values about 20% higher than women. Although sex differences in V˙O2max have already been well studied, few studies have assessed sex differences with regard to muscle oxidative capacity. The aim of this study was to compare aerobic muscle quality, accessed by V˙O2max and adjusted by lower limb lean mass, between male and female amateur triathletes. The study also aimed to compare sex differences according to V˙O2 submaximal values assessed at ventilatory thresholds. A total of 57 participants (23 women and 34 men), who had been training for Olympic-distance triathlon races, underwent body composition evaluation by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and performed a cardiorespiratory maximal test on a treadmill. Male athletes had significantly higher V˙O2max, both absolutely and when adjusted to body mass. Conversely, when V˙O2max was adjusted for lean mass, there was no significant difference between sexes. The same was observed at submaximal exercise intensities. In conclusion, differences in V˙O2max adjusted to body mass but not lean mass may explain, at least in part, sex differences in performance in triathlons, marathons, cycling, and other endurance sports.

Physiological Features of Olympic-Distance Amateur Triathletes, as Well as Their Associations with Performance in Women and Men: A Cross–Sectional Study

The purpose of this study was to verify the physiological and anthropometric determinants of triathlon performance in female and male athletes. This study included 40 triathletes (20 male and 20 female). Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) was used to assess body composition, and an incremental cardiopulmonary test was used to assess physiological variables. A questionnaire about physical training habits was also completed by the athletes. Athletes competed in the Olympic-distance triathlon race. For the female group, the total race time can be predicted by V̇O2max (β = -131, t = -6.61, p < 0.001), lean mass (β = -61.4, t = -2.66, p = 0.018), and triathlon experience (β = -886.1, t = -3.01, p = 0.009) (r2 = 0.825, p < 0.05). For the male group, the total race time can be predicted by maximal aerobic speed (β = -294.1, t = -2.89, p = 0.010) and percentage of body fat (β = 53.6, t = 2.20, p = 0.042) (r2 = 0.578, p < 0.05). The variables that can predict the performance of men are not the same as those that can predict the triathlon performance of women. These data can help athletes and coaches develop performance-enhancing strategies.

On “Iron” Men: True and Ephemeral in Endurance Sports

This essay examines the social portrait of contemporary iron men and women, i.e., non-elite amateur triathletes. It is questioned the widespread belief in their unique exceptionality as socially successful people and natural-born endurance athletes. It is shown that the commodification of endurance sports (running, cycling, cross-country skiing, and triathlon) led to the division of communities into two generations — the displacing original and the emerging contemporary. The original generation was characterized by a more democratic social composition and more sustained engagement. The contemporary generation prefers symbolic recognition and a shorter commitment to sports. This opens up discussions about enduring and ephemeral matters in sports.

Mood profiles of amateur triathletes: Implications for mental health and performance.

Moods have been shown to be predictive of athletic performance and a reflection of mental health status. The aims of our study were (a) to compare pre-race mood scores of triathletes with population norms; (b) to compare pre-race mood scores of triathletes grouped by gender and age bands; (c) to explore whether six distinct mood profile clusters reported in the literature were evident among triathletes and their respective prevalence; (d) to determine if pre-race mood scores predicted triathlon performance; and (e) to interpret our findings in terms of the risk of mental health issues for triathletes. Participants were 592 age-group triathletes (also referred to as recreational or amateur triathletes) who completed the Brunel Mood Scale pre-race and recorded their time goal for the race. Mean mood scores deviated significantly from population norms, with Tension and Vigor scores at the 55th and 54th percentile, respectively, and Depression, Anger, Fatigue, and Confusion scores between the 42nd and 46th percentile. Females reported higher Tension scores than males (p < 0.001), and those in the 18-25 years and 26-35 years age bands reported higher Tension scores than those in the 46-55 years age band (p < 0.008). Using k-means cluster analysis, six distinct mood profiles were identified, the distribution of which approximated the general population, except for a low prevalence of very negative profiles. Mean scores for Depression and Anger were exceptionally low and only 1.5% of triathletes, compared to the normal prevalence of ~5%, reported an "inverse Everest" profile, which is associated with elevated risk of psychopathology. Mood scores did not predict triathlon performance, assessed by finish time as a percentage of time goal. Results showed an association between triathlon participation and psychological well-being. Findings will inform future investigations of mood responses among triathletes and provide a relevant point of reference for applied practitioners who work with triathletes.

Cardiac remodeling in amateur triathletes after 24 weeks of exercise training for a half-Ironman event: a brief report.

Triathletes' physiological adaptations to exercise training can have a different impact on cardiac remodeling based on the extreme exercise preparation. Moreover, cardiac remodeling might be different depending on whether triathletes have trained for many years or if they just decided to be more active. Nevertheless, data are limited in amateur endurance athletes and studies about them are key for their safety. Therefore, we investigated the effects of exercise training for a half-ironman on cardiac remodeling. A total of 24 amateur athletes underwent a 24-week exercise program and were followed by three-dimensional echocardiography to assess its global impact on cardiac remodeling. Subanalyses were performed based on participants past-training experience (low versus high). We found significant group effects on the right and left ventricle, significant time effect on the right ventricle. No significant interaction effects were observed. We observed significant correlations between the right ventricle, clinical and performance characteristics where the peak power output explained 38% of the variance, while the body surface area, weight and power at the second ventilatory threshold explained 34%, 31% and 30%, respectively. Changes in cardiac remodeling in response to an exercise program for a half-ironman are not homogeneous across the ventricles and are influenced by participants' past-training experience. This study strengthens our knowledge of extreme exercise training for a half-ironman to further develop better training programs and medical follow-up in amateur triathletes.

The Performance, Physiology and Morphology of Female and Male Olympic-Distance Triathletes.

Sex differences in triathlon performance have been decreasing in recent decades and little information is available to explain it. Thirty-nine male and eighteen female amateur triathletes were evaluated for fat mass, lean mass, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max), ventilatory threshold (VT), respiratory compensation point (RCP), and performance in a national Olympic triathlon race. Female athletes presented higher fat mass (p = 0.02, d = 0.84, power = 0.78) and lower lean mass (p < 0.01, d = 3.11, power = 0.99). VO2 max (p < 0.01, d = 1.46, power = 0.99), maximal aerobic velocity (MAV) (p < 0.01, d = 2.05, power = 0.99), velocities in VT (p < 0.01, d = 1.26, power = 0.97), and RCP (p < 0.01, d = 1.53, power = 0.99) were significantly worse in the female group. VT (%VO2 max) (p = 0.012, d = 0.73, power = 0.58) and RCP (%VO2 max) (p = 0.005, d = 0.85, power = 0.89) were higher in the female group. Female athletes presented lower VO2 max value, lower lean mass, and higher fat mass. However, females presented higher values of aerobic endurance (%VO2 max), which can attenuate sex differences in triathlon performance. Coaches and athletes should consider that female athletes can maintain a higher percentage of MAV values than males during the running split to prescribe individual training.

The Effect of Periodization on Training Program Adherence.

The present research aimed to study the effect of three different training periodization (traditional, reverse, and free training) on the aerobic performance, motivation, and adherence of physically active athletes. We analysed the adherence to three different periodization training programs: traditional, reverse, and free training periodization on the adherence of amateur triathletes. For this aim, the individual adherence, motivation, and aerobic performance time and heart rate (in a 1000 m running test) were evaluated before and after the completion of the three different 8-week periodization programs. The level of adherence to the reverse periodization was significantly higher than in traditional and free training. The number of dropouts in reverse and traditional periodization was similar but lower than in the free training. Finally, neither of the periodization programs improved aerobic performance and reverse training periodization decreased heart rate of participants in a 1000 m running test.

Estimation Of Skeletal Muscle Tissue In Athletes Using Dual X Ray Absorptiometry, Anthropometry, And Bioelectrical Impedance

Anthropometry and Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) are the most used procedures to assess musculoskeletal tissue (MST) and body composition in athletes; however, the evidence exhibits significant diferences when compared against reference methods or even in intra-analytical analyses. PURPOSE: To analyze the correlations and differences found in the MST determined by Dual X-Ray Absorptiometry (DXA), Anthropometry, and BIA in a sample of Mexican triathletes. METHODS: Amateur triathletes (n = 30; 20 males, 10 females), aged 18-40, were included. Estimations were performed by using DXA Hologic QDR, BIA BodyStat 1500, and the anthropometric evaluation as defined by the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) by an ISAK level 3 anthropometrist. The equation used as a reference to derive MST from appendicular lean soft tissue (ALST) measured with DXA, was compared with the results obtained from the Janssen formula for BIA, and the Heymsfield and Kerr formulas accepted for anthropometric data. RESULTS: The bivariate correlation showed significant associations between the variables expressed in kg and percentage (DXA vs Janssen: r = .967, r = .838; DXA vs Heymsfield: r = .973, r = .867; DXA vs Kerr: r = .967, r = .824, respectively). Significant differences (p < 0.001) were found when compared the mean between DXA vs Kerr in terms of kg and percentage (25.41 kg ± 5.89 vs 33.00 kg ± 6.82; and 36.66% ± 4.04 vs 47.75% ± 3.57, respectively). In a post-hoc analysis, heterogeneous results of means were identified with all the formulas used. CONCLUSIONS: The Heymsfield and Janssen equations can be used in people with similar features to the study population, showing reliable results when compared with the reference method. Kerr's formula overestimated the MST values. Whether an estimation using any of the proposed equations, it is always recommended to use the same in subsequent evaluations. Studies with larger samples are necessary to prove if the results can be replicated.

장시간의 고강도 유산소 운동이 항산화 효소 및 근 손상지표에 미치는 영향

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of long-term aerobic exercise on muscle damage indicators and antioxidant enzymes by observation of amateur athlete participants. We observed the changes that occurred at rest and immediately after a marathon and triathlon.<BR> Method: The subjects of the study were 8 amateur male marathon runners and 9 amateur triathletes. All participants were in their 30’s and 40’s of age and resided in the city of S. After the marathon runners ran a full race of 42.195 kilometers, two blood samples were taken immediately after the race when their conditions were stable. After the triathletes went through an Olympic course which included 1.5 kilometers of swimming, 40 kilometers of cycling, and 10 kilometers of running, two blood samples were also taken immediately after completion when their conditions were stable. Using the SPSS/PC+Ver. 21.0K program, descriptive statistics (Mean ± Standard Error) of all dependent variables were calculated. A two-way repeated ANOVA was performed to verify the difference between the average of the dependent variables once the homogeneity between the two groups (marathon and triathlon) and between thew to tests (stable and immediately after the race) were confirmed. A paired t-test was performed for the differences of the two tests within the groups, and an independent t-test was performed for the differences between the two groups. The statistical significance level was set to α=.05.<BR> Results: In the marathon group, SOD significantly increased immediately after the race (p<.001). In the triathlon group, SOD significantly increased in the same manner after the race (p<.05). There was no significant difference between the two groups. In both groups, CK and LDHi significantly increased immediately after the races (p<.001), with no significant differences between the groups.<BR> Conclusion: During long-term high-intensity aerobic exercise, marathons and triathlons increase oxidative stress, which can lead to muscle damage. Additionally, the increase of SOD, an antioxidant defense system enzyme, is a response to oxidative stress and appears to prevent the generation of free radicals from exercise.

The use of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) to increase the self-determined motivation and psychological well-being of triathletes.

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) and its relationship with self-determined motivation has received scant research attention despite growing interest in the motivational effects of REBT with athletes. Recent evidence suggests that reductions in irrational beliefs brought about by REBT may facilitate increases in self-determined motivation. The current study seeks to replicate and build this initial research using an idiographic single-case design to assess the effects of one-to-one REBT on the irrational beliefs, self-determined motivation, vitality, and sleep quality of four amateur triathletes. Self-report data were collected prior to, during, and after the REBT intervention. Visual analysis revealed that reductions in irrational beliefs were met with concomitant increases in self-determined motivation, vitality, and sleep quality. Social validation data supported the visual analysis findings. This current study supports and extends research by offering further advances in our understanding of the potential relationships between REBT, self-determined motivation, and athlete wellbeing. Keywords: CBT; counselling; sport; mental health; case-study

Perfil de triatletas amadores do estado de Minas Gerais: análise dos treinamentos, lesões e competições

Objetivo: O objetivo deste estudo foi traçar um perfil dos praticantes amadores de Triatlo através da análise da rotina de treinos e competições. Métodos: Participaram da pesquisa 46 homens e 16 mulheres da cidade de Belo Horizonte.A pesquisa é quantitativa e foi realizada por meio da aplicação de questionário com 40 perguntas abertas e fechadas. As perguntas são relativas aos temas: informações pessoais, histórico no triatlo, rotina de treino, participação em competições, histórico de lesões e hábitos relacionados à prática do triatlo. O questionário foi elaborado pelos pesquisadores. Resultados: A maioria se considera de nível intermediário (59,67%) e participa de provas de curta distância (52%).Cada modalidade é treinada em média 3 vezes na semana.O treino de educativos na natação é realizado com frequência por 33,8%, o anaeróbio no ciclismo por 14,5% e o treino de força na corrida por 20,9% dos participantes. Conclusão: Conclui-se que o nível de desempenho auto percebido pelos triatletas amadores de Belo Horizonte tem relação direta com o tempo de prática na modalidade. As horas que dedicam para cada modalidade em relação às horas totais de treino na semana são elevadas para natação e ciclismo e baixas para corrida em comparação a outros estudos. Não foi encontrada relação entre lesões e rotina de treinamento. Uma investigação mais aprofundada sobre as competições, como tempo gasto nas provas e região onde competem, irá contribuir para outras análises e resultados.

Motivational self-talk improves time-trial swimming endurance performance in amateur triathletes

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to compare the effects of an instructional and a motivational self-talk intervention on swimming endurance performance in amateur triathletes. To this purpose, we designed a parallel two groups, randomised, longitudinal (pre- and post-test) study. During 12 days in all exercise-training sessions, the motivational self-talk (M-ST) group (n = 10) was asked to rehearse motivational sentences driving to improve effort to finish the swimming test (750 m) as fast as they could. The instructional self-talk (I-ST) group (n = 11) was asked to rehearse sentences driven to keep pace and movement fluency. The performance in the swimming test increased significantly only in the M-ST group from pre- to post-intervention (2.8%, ). In addition, only the M-ST group increased significantly the swimming pace , which was measured every 150 m, and maintained the same perception of effort level when comparing pre- and post-intervention. The M-ST group also increased significantly their outcome expectancy (6%, = .34) from pre- to post-intervention, in which the variance of swimming performance was approximately 60% explained by the outcome expectancy (B = .656, SE = .086, p < .001, 95% CI [.482, .830]). Findings suggest that M-ST enhanced outcome expectancy, helping triathletes to improve endurance performance probably due to the higher level of potential motivation which mobilised more effort. Therefore, M-ST intervention has been probably effective to improve swimming endurance performance in amateur triathletes, whereas I-ST has maintained it.

Aerobic capacity predict skeletal but not cardiac muscle damage after triathlon \u2013 the Iron(WO)man study

This study examines the association between aerobic capacity and biomarkers of skeletal- and cardiac muscle damage among amateur triathletes after a full distance Ironman. Men and women (N = 55) were recruited from local sport clubs. One month before an Ironman triathlon, they conducted a 20 m shuttle run test to determine aerobic capacity. Blood samples were taken immediately after finishing the triathlon, and analyzed for cardiac Troponin T (cTnT), Myosin heavy chain-a (MHC-a), N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), Creatin Kinas (CK), and Myoglobin. Regression models examining the association between the biomarkers and aerobic capacity expressed in both relative terms (mLO2*kg−1*min−1) and absolute terms (LO2*min−1) controlled for weight were fitted. A total of 39 subjects (26% females) had complete data and were included in the analysis. No association between aerobic capacity and cardiac muscle damage was observed. For myoglobin, adding aerobic capacity (mLO2*kg−1*min−1) increased the adjusted r2 from 0.026 to 0.210 (F: 8.927, p = 0.005) and for CK the adjusted r2 increased from -0.015 to 0.267 (F: 13.778, p = 0.001). In the models where aerobic capacity was entered in absolute terms the adjusted r2 increased from 0.07 to 0.227 (F: 10.386, p = 0.003) for myoglobin and for CK from -0.029 to 0.281 (F: 15.215, p < 0.001). A negative association between aerobic capacity and skeletal muscle damage was seen but despite the well-known cardio-protective health effect of high aerobic fitness, no such association could be observed in this study.

Effectiveness of Reverse vs. Traditional Linear Training Periodization in Triathlon.

The present research aimed to analyze the modification in performance, body composition, and autonomic modulation of reverse and traditional linear training periodization in amateur triathletes. We analyzed running and swimming performance, strength manifestation, body composition, and autonomic modulation before and after a traditional linear training periodization (four weeks of volume-based training plus four weeks of intensity-based training plus two-week tapering), a reverse linear training periodization (four weeks of intensity-based training plus four weeks of volume-based training plus two-week tapering), and a free training control physical active group (10-week free training) in 32 amateur athletes. Independently of the periodization model, the combination of two four-week mesocycles followed by a two-week taper is an efficiency strategy to avoid overreaching, obtaining an increase in parasympathetic modulation. Moreover, both types of training periodization proposed in this study do not modified body composition of amateur triathletes. Also, compared with traditional periodization, reverse periodization efficiently improves horizontal jump performance. Finally, reverse and traditional periodization were an effective strategy to improve running biomechanical, performance, and physiological variables, as well as efficient periodization strategies to improve swimming technical ability, aerobic, and anaerobic swimming performance.