Amateur Naturalists Research Articles

Review of The Behavior of Animals: Mechanisms, Function and Evolution.

JOHAN J. BOLHUIS and LUC-ALAIN GIRALDEAU The Behavior of Animals: Mechanisms, Function and Evolution Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005, 536 pages (ISBN 0-631-23125-0, US$69.95 Paperback) Interest in the behaviour of animals dates at least to the ancient Greeks (and probably long before), for humans have long appreciated the potential insights to be gleaned about their own habits from those of animals. Until relatively recently, however, the scientific study of animal behaviour was comparatively limited in scope. Until Darwin, and for some time after, research on animal behaviour was conducted primarily by amateur naturalists and seldom explicitly and thoughtfully linked to human behaviour and psychology, the exception being the rigorous studies of animal learning that began toward the end of the 19th century and continued throughout the 20th, which was, by and large, where the field of comparative psychology started and finished. All of that changed in the middle 20th-century with the landmark works of ethologists Nikko Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz, and Karl von Frisch, who shared a Nobel Prize for their innovative formal research programs on, and considerable insights into, the naturalistic behaviour of animals. The scientific study of animal behaviour grew precipitously after that, and today encompasses field and laboratory studies of every major animal group and the truly dizzying array of behavioural phenomena that they manifest, all with a dual focus on better understanding the natural diversity of animal behaviour and on using it to better illuminate our own. The Behavior of Animals: Mechanisms, Function and Evolution is a new textbook by Johan Bolhuis and LucAlain Giraldeau aimed at covering this increasingly dynamic and broad field. Given the vastness of the phenomena now to be covered, a compelling theoretical framework is absolutely essential if a comprehensive understanding of animal behaviour is to emerge. Fortunately, Tinbergen himself provided just such a framework for organizing research on animal behaviour, and Bolhuis and Giraldeau wisely follow it in their organization of the material in this text. Thus, a short preface rehearsing the history of animal behaviour research by Robert Hinde (one of Tinbergen's students who himself became one of the foremost contemporary ethologists) is followed by 16 chapters by 23 authors. The chapters are organized into three major sections, two of which flow directly from Tinbergen's four whys of behaviour. The first section is concerned with the first two of Tinbergen's four questions, namely, what are the immediate proximate and longer developmental causes of behaviour? This section includes chapters on perception, motivation, biological rhythms, learning and memory, and cognition. All are well written and comprehensive. David Sherry's chapter provides an especially nice balance of current cognitive theory and basic empirical research by partitioning brain effects on behaviour into three main processes: obtaining information, manipulating that information, and directing movement and behaviour in response. To illustrate these processes, Sherry uses clear and compelling behavioural examples, such as the well-researched auditory processes that barn owls use to detect and capture rodent prey. Similarly, the animal cognition chapter by Nathan Emery and Nicola Clayton offers a concise account of the mechanistic basis of spatial memory and social relationships that are central to challenges in the lives of so many species. The second section concentrates on Tinbergen's second set of questions: What is the ultimate adaptive function of a behaviour, and how did it evolve in the history of the species? These questions are explored in several chapters with different themes, including communication, sociality, mating systems, mate choice, polyandry, sperm competition, and sexual conflict. …

Sinistral Snails and Gentlemen Scientists

A single gene mutation can cause a complete left-to-right and right-to-left inversion of the body axis. This mutation exemplifies a large class of so-called maternal effect genes that regulate key events during early development. This principle was first established nearly one hundred years ago, principally by the work of amateur naturalists.

Caught between the Cartographic and the Ethnographic Imagination: The Whereabouts of Amateurs, Professionals, and Nature in Knowing Biodiversity

In this paper we document current research into new forms of public engagement presently taking place in UK biodiversity policy. This involves locating the main participants in such patterns of engagement; namely nature, amateur naturalists, and professional biologists and conservationists. Two interwoven and mutually interdependent perspectives or ‘imaginaries’—the ‘cartographic’ and the ‘ethnographic’—are presented in the paper to explore the shaping and interpretation of such new forms of engagement. However, in this context the interest lies in the ways in which either perspective is foregrounded or backgrounded by the different parties involved. The described shifts and movements of a range of actors and processes being studied demonstrate the fluidity and instability of networks of ‘knowing nature well’, whose stability is often assumed. The tracing of two constants— expertise and exchange—within networks inhabited by nature and by amateur and professional naturalists allows for an exploration of ways in which social/natural inclusions and exclusions occur in new participatory practices designed as part of biodiversity action planning.

Mammals of North America

R. W. Kays, D. E. Wilson. 2002. Mammals of North America. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, and Woodstock, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom, 240 pp. ISBN 0-691-07012-1, price (paper), $19.95. ISBN 0-691-08890-X, price (cloth), $49.50. This addition to the Princeton Field Guide series makes all other field guides for mammals of the United States (exclusive of Hawaii) and Canada obsolete. It was designed to enable identification of the 442 species of mammals known from North America N of Mexico. This number includes all native mammal species (both marine and terrestrial) of that region, plus exotic mammal species known to survive there and reproduce in the wild, and a few supposedly extinct or extirpated mammal species that might be found there in the future. Intended for use by professional mammalogists and amateur naturalists alike, the book provides a wealth of information in a concise volume suitable for carrying in the field. It should be noted that one of the authors of this field guide (Don Wilson) and another of his colleagues (Sue Ruff) were the editors of The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals , which was published in 1999. That epic tome, which I reviewed earlier (Choate 2001), was a phenomenal undertaking by 229 authorities …

The Use of Full‐Time Volunteers and Interns by Natural‐Resource Professionals

The natural-resource profession relies on volunteers and interns—who are typically compensated at levels far below minimum wage—to carry out many research, management, and conservation activities. In some cases these positions involve part-time or short-term service, during which an individual need not forego outside opportunities for paid work. Such experiences can be rewarding and educational and are filled by students, retirees, vacationers, individuals working full time in other professions, and amateur naturalists. Because these individuals usually have an outside source of income and their time commitment is limited, their service is unlikely to lead to financial hardship. Many other volunteer and internship positions require that individuals live in remote areas and work 40 hours per week, effectively denying them the opportunity to earn outside wages. Most often these full-time positions are filled by aspiring natural-resource professionals ( e.g., students or recent graduates ) who need workplace experience if they are to advance to graduate school or more lucrative jobs. Consequently, employers often consider work experience adequate compensation for wage shortfalls. This latter group—entry-level professionals in full-time positions—is the focus of this essay. I believe that our widespread use of volunteers and interns to compensate for budget shortfalls does our profession more harm than good. In many cases this approach is in conflict with labor law, hinders the development of new professionals, undermines our profession’s credibility, and is an impediment to achieving our conservation goals. Evidence that I am not alone in my concern was provided by a recent debate on this topic on The Wildlife Society’s email discussion list (TWS-L@listserv.vt.edu; October 25–30, 2001; 70 postings by 50 members). Although a minority of contributors spoke out in defense of the status quo, many more were sharply critical of our current use of volunteers and interns. How extensive is our use of subminimum-wage positions? As an example, I reviewed all positions offered on Texas A&M University’s on-line fish and wildlife job board on 14 November 2001 (Table 1 ), which is currently considered the most complete job listing for fisheries and wildlife professionals in North America. Thirtythree percent of the 267 entry-level positions offered were listed as internship or volunteer opportunities, and only three internships offered stipends exceeding minimum wage (Table 1). Many other positions, typically referred to as “technicians,” also paid less than minimum wage, meaning that 40% of entry-level positions listed paid below this standard (Table 1). These positions were offered by a diverse group of organizations, including federal and state agencies, national parks, universities, branches of the military, private companies, and nonprofit conservation groups. Many included some nonmonetary benefits such as housing or academic credit, but stipends were generally so low that even with this support compensation did not approach minimum wage. Employers receive obvious monetary benefits when paying less than minimum wage, whereas workers can benefit by gaining workplace experience, professional exposure, and satisfaction from service. But do these benefits come at a price? Starting at the level of the individual and moving outward, several important costs can be incurred by our current treatment of volunteers and interns, including (1) undue personal hardship, (2) exclusion of potentially valuable individuals based on economic class, (3) failure to meet society’s legal and ethical expectations, and (4) devaluation of natural resources and impedance of conservation.

Is the Neotropical Flora Ready for the PhyloCode?

Nomenclatural systems are structured around classification, and together they enable increasingly informed communication about biological diversity. Challengers of Linnaean classification and nomenclature have proposed the PhyloCode, a new set of rules that would govern the way systematists classify and name the diversity of life. Monographs and floras are two fundamental vehicles for communicating information about plant diversity. These works provide a comprehensive foundation of botanical research upon which other scientific studies are based. Information conveyed by monographs and floras is utilized directly or indirectly both within and outside the scientific arena by a wide range of consumers, such as educators, agronomists, ecologists, conservationists, amateur naturalists, and even lawmakers, to name a few. Both classification and nomenclature are essential to the process of synthesis that leads to monographic and floristic treatments and the communication that they facilitate. Conversion to a new system would have far-reaching consequences for the flow of information from systematics to other scientific disciplines, and to society. The purposes of this article are to address the proposed conversion from the perspective of monographic and floristic research focused on Neotropical plant diversity and to point out some difficulties in applying the PhyloCode to the Neotropical flora. Although we welcome improvements in the current nomenclatural system, we conclude that the PhyloCode is not prepared to replace the Linnaean system as a new way to communicate information about Neotropical plant diversity.

Splendor of Humble Symbionts

Lichens of North America . Irwin M. Brodo, Sylvia Duran Sharnoff, and Stephen Sharnoff. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 2001. 819 pp. $69.95, £50. ISBN 0-300-08249-5. Specialists and amateur naturalists alike will find this superbly illustrated guidebook a goldmine of information on the identification and ecology of the often overlooked lichens.

Developments in the application of photography to ecological monitoring, with reference to algal beds

Abstract1. The potential for using photographic methods in ecological monitoring of intertidal rocky shores was investigated at two scales: the scale of a bay, and at sampling quadrat level.2. The macroalgal beds at Selwicks Bay, Flamborough Head (north Humberside Coast, England) were used as a case study.3. At each station on three 90 m transects, a photograph was taken of a 50 cm2 quadrat. These images were analysed using SigmaScan™ to measure the cover of algal species. These data were highly correlated with field data collected using a grid quadrat.4. Ground techniques were developed for drawing a scaled overhead map of the bay. The potential for a quantitative survey of the extent of the algal beds using cliff top photographs was investigated. The photographs were merged, and rectified using Arc/Info™ (a Geographical Information System package) to produce scaled overhead images of the bay.5. The two complementary methods developed are suitable for involving amateur naturalists into field‐data collection. They were also designed to meet long‐term statutory monitoring requirements. They are quick, so are well suited to intertidal areas where field sampling windows are limited. In long‐term monitoring strategies, the use of photography produces interactive permanent records of the sample area for back reference. Reporting on the conservation status of sites of European interest could be greatly facilitated by such techniques.6. There are obvious applications for overseas monitoring and base‐line surveys, which demand large data sets to be collected in limited periods of time. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

G. Ledyard Stebbins (1906–2000)

George Ledyard Stebbins, Jr. was born into a wealthy family in Lawrence, New York. His parents were both amateur naturalists, and Ledyard and his two siblings learned at a young age to identify the plants and animals of the New England countryside and of the tidal pools near the family's summer home in Maine. His love for plants grew during his teen years in California, where he learned the flora and natural history of the Santa Barbara area. Ledyard's love of nature and his dedication to its conservation remained with him throughout his life. Stebbins attended Harvard University, where his passion for plants turned to their formal study. Following his graduate work at Harvard, Stebbins accepted a faculty position at Colgate University in 1931. Four years later, Stebbins moved to the University of California at Berkeley as a research associate, and he was named to the faculty there in 1939. In 1950, Stebbins moved to the University of California at Davis, where he founded the Department of Genetics; he remained there until his death.

Birds to watch: a Red Data List for East Africa

Bennun, L.A., Njoroge, P. & Pomeroy, D. 2000. Birds to watch: a Red Data List for East Africa. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 310–314. The value of Red Data books and lists is well established; there has been much recent work on improving the criteria for listing species of conservation concern. So far these have been applied mainly at the global level. Regional lists can be useful, however, in improving the resolution of conservation priorities and setting an agenda for research, monitoring and conservation, especially where data are collected by amateur naturalists. A Red Data list for East African birds has been drawn up following an eight-month process that involved wide consultation within the region, defined as Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania, Kenya and Burundi. The criteria for listing were based on those defined by IUCN, and summarised in a single, simple table that could be used for screening large numbers of species. A criterion based on geographic range eliminated from consideration vagrant species or those on the extreme edge of their range. A separate Near Threatened category (Lower Risk but very close to Vulnerable) proved useful. An additional category of Regional Responsibility captured species that are entirely or mainly confiied to East Africa, or to three habitats where the region has special responsibility: coastal forests, Albertine Rift forests, and papyrus swamps. A total of 107 species (about 8% of the regional avifauna) were listed as regionally threatened. This includes four Critical, 18 Endangered and 85 Vulnerable species, proportions very close to those expected from the theoretical probabilities of extinction in each case. One hundred and four species were listed as Near-threatened and 153 as Regional Responsibility, 87 of which are not under threat. Placing a species in a particular category of threat, for explicit reasons, poses an hypothesis about its status that can be tested with additional data. This process is now under way with the compilation of a more detailed, annotated list.

A Guide to Wildflowers in Winter: Herbaceous Plants of Northeastern North America

People who enjoy looking at and identifying outdoor plants in northeastern North America are often accustomed to putting aside this pursuit in the late fall and winter. Many plants, however, are still visible during these seasons and have features that make it possible to identify them at that time. This beautifully illustrated book is a unique guide that helps both amateur naturalists and serious field botanists identify nonwoody plants-herbaceous weeds and wildflowers-as they are found in winter in the northeastern United States and eastern Canada. The book features long entries on 391 species of herbaceous plants, each illustrated with a line drawing by Dick Rauh, together with briefer mentions of 191 similar species. The book also includes numerous charts illustrated by Rauh, an illustrated key, and an illustrated glossary. Photographs to help in identifying winter rosettes of some species are also provided.

Reptiles of North Carolina

Based on more than twenty years of research in the field and in museum collections, Reptiles of North Carolina is the definitive work on the 71 reptile species found in the state. It is an indispensable resource for herpetologists, zoologists, ecologists, and wildlife managers, and it will be enjoyed by amateur naturalists as well. For each species the authors offer a description that includes characteristics useful in distinguishing the species from similar ones and information on the variation, distribution, and natural history of the species in the state. Each account is accompanied by a range map and at least one detailed drawing that shows characteristics important for identification. A section of color photographs aids in identification of reptiles.

A guide to the zoological literature: the animal kingdom

This work provides access to a wealth of information. Reference librarians, students, zoologists, conservationists, and amateur naturalists can use it to locate such sources as a field guide to the birds of Bali, a checklist of the mammals of Africa, an encyclopedia of fishes, a handbook on insects, an identification key to reptiles of North America, or the name of an Internet news group on western birds. It is the only existing work that contains a compilation of all the major reference sources on the animal kingdom. A comprehensive author-title index and a separate subject index make locating specific entries simple. The subject index includes the common and scientific names of animal groups and geographical locations. Intended for use in public, academic, and specialized libraries, as well as departments in the zoological sciences.

Comparative cognition: Beginning the second century of the study of animal intelligence.

Comparative psychology has undergone many changes since its inception in Victorian England some 100 years ago. Gone are the amusing anecdotes of pet owners and amateur naturalists, replaced by the detailed observations of behavioral scientists made under carefully controlled conditions. Yet, many of the persistent problems in the comparative analysis of intelligence remain: Are the cognitive processes of animals like those of humans? Can researchers construct a phytogeny of intelligence? What is cognition without language? This article briefly reviews the history of the study of comparative cognition. It then discusses 2 of the most active and important areas of empirical inquiry—memory and conceptualization—to acquaint readers with contemporary research in the field. Given increased contact with the related areas of cognitive science, behavioral neuroscience, and behavioral ecology, comparative cognition should continue in its 2nd century to make significant contributions to the overall understanding of the principles of behavior.

The Concise Oxford dictionary of zoology

This dictionary of zoology contains nearly 6000 entries, and should appeal to students, amateur naturalists, and all non-specialist readers with an interest in the subject. The bulk of entries have been taken from the Oxford Dictionary of Natural History, some of them amended or rewritten. A number of new entries have been added, reflecting the increased emphasis on ecology in the study of animals. In addition to ecology, the subjects covered include evolutionary concepts, animal behaviour, Earth history, cell structure and function, physiology, zoogeography, taxonomic principles, and genetics. There are also brief biographical notes on some of the most important figures in the development of the relevant disciplines. The taxa covered include invertebrates, with particular emphasis on arthropods, fish reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals. The dictionary is aimed at students from the 6th form upwards following courses on zoology, biology, biochemistry, biogeography, earth sciences, ecology, entomology, and veterinary science; and at naturalists, birdwatchers, and environmentalists.

An Amateur Naturalists’ Guide to Non-Biting Midges in Saskatchewan

An Amateur Naturalists’ Guide to Non-Biting Midges in Saskatchewan

Plant form: an illustrated guide to flowering plant morphology

The diverse external shapes and structures that make up flowering plants can be bewildering and even daunting, as can the terminology used to describe them. An understanding of plant form - plant morphology - is essential to appreciating the wonders of the plant world and to the study of botany and horticulture at every level. In this ingeniously designed volume, the complex subject becomes both accessible and manageable. The first part of the book describes and clearly illustrates the major plant structures that can be seen with the naked eye or a hand lens: leaf, root, stem, reproductive organs, and seedlings; special sections focus on vegetative propagation, and the morphology of grasses, orchids, and cacti. However, plants are dynamic organisms, constantly growing, changing, and becoming more elaborate, and understanding the development of a plant or plant part is as important as describing its final form. Part II focuses on how plants grow: bud development, the growth of reproductive organs, leaf arrangement, branching patterns, and the accumulation and loss of structures. This classic book, now revised and expanded to include the latest information on plant morphology, more than 1000 exquisite line drawings including 119 that are new to this edition, and nearly twice as many photographs as the previous edition, is remarkable for its user-friendly organization, high-quality illustrations, and extensive cross-referencing. Aimed at students of botany and horticulture, enthusiastic gardeners and amateur naturalists, it functions as an illustrated dictionary, a basic course in plant morphology, and an intriguing and enlightening book to dip into.

The Neotropical Orb-Weaver Genera Epeiroides, Bertrana and Amazonepeira (Araneae: Araneidae).

Most Neotropical spider specimens preserved in museums were collected by ornithologists, entomologists or amateur naturalists, who picked up spiders when their preferred organisms could not be found. Invariably such collectors bring back the biggest, showiest spiders. Only in recent years have arachnologists themselves collected, concentrating on the less conspicuous but often more interesting spiders that previously were overlooked. Tiny spiders frequently show greater diversity in structure than larger ones, and have more species in the Holarctic region. At present we know much less about the minute Neotropical Araneidae than about the larger species.For most of these spiders there is no literature other than catalog citations. Often the second citation is a misidentification, and many species, when found again, were given new names (e.g. <em>Bertrana striotaca</em>), because making a new species is much easier than checking previous descriptions and examining their types.

The Poconos: An Illustrated Natural History Guide.

Poconos, a rich plateau nestled in northeastern Pennsylvania between the Delaware River and the Moosic Mountains, encompass a variety of alluring features. perfect reference for amateur naturalists, outdoor enthusiasts, tourists, and others who wish to explore the area, this classic guide clearly explains the unique geographic characteristics, animal habits and habitats, climate, geology, and vegetation of the area. authors trace the region from its beginnings millions of years ago as part of a shallow sea, through the reshaping forces of great glaciers, to today's roadways and turnpikes. This revised and expanded edition also includes brief profiles of individuals who played significant roles in the preservation or understanding of the area's ecology. Chapters provide a general survey of the area, including its history and places to be explored and observed, information on forest types, wildlife, and aquatic habitats, updated facts and figures on animal populations, as well as new details on invasive species. Throughout the book, numerous boxes direct readers to observatory points for specific birds, ecosystems, vegetation types, and geological features, while maps, tables, original pen-and-ink illustrations, and a select list of field guides and other references enhance the book's appeal. An indispensable companion for visitors as well as residents, The Poconos is a must-read for everyone who wants to discover or better understand the beauty and natural history of this unique region.

Which way the future?

Just as the principle of uniformitarianism is a fundamental tenet of science, the past experiences of the Field Studies Council provide an insight, and possibly a signpost, to the future. During the last thirty years, there have been significant changes in the numbers and categories of visitor attending the residential Centres. Expansion between 1956 and 1976 was almost entirely due to A-level courses in biology and geography but in the last ten years there has been considerable diversification. Adult amateur naturalists and younger, pre-A-level, school pupils are the obvious growth categories now. In the GCSE examination syllabuses, more than ever before, there is a commitment to ecology and to fieldwork (with the latter compulsory in all Geography syllabuses). Against such a background one might expect an optimistic prediction for the FSC's future. Unfortunately, and for a variety of reasons, many educationalists promote the view that ecology can be taught in the classroom and that first-hand observations of animals and plants in an aquarium provide sufficient practical work. There is a growing need for those who believe in the necessity for genuine field observation of the environment, in the environment, to voice their concern at the acceptance of any such alternatives/substitutes. Although environmental awareness has been heightened in recent years one might question whether there has been a concommitant raising of environmental understanding. It is increasingly important that, as the scale and scope of decisions about the environment expand, the level of understanding of those who make decisions (and of those who elect them) should also be raised. It is no longer politic nor wise to accept Montaigne's assertion, “that men are most apt to believe what they least understand”. I suggest that our target for the future be “Breadth with Excellence”. If the FSC can move toward that goal it can face the daunting task of trying to achieve “Environmental Understanding for AH”.