Amateur Endurance Athletes Research Articles

Acute effect of hydrogen-rich water on physical, perceptual and cardiac responses during aerobic and anaerobic exercises: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blinded cross-over trial.

Molecular hydrogen (H2 gas) dissolved in water to produce Hydrogen-Rich Water. Hydrogen-Rich Water (HRW) is considered as ergogenic aid in different exercise modes. However, acute pre-exercise HRW ingestion effect is unclear regarding athlete performance. This study aimed at investigating acute effect of HRW ingestion on aerobic and anaerobic exercise performance. Twenty-two male amateur middle-distance runners volunteered to participate in this study. In a randomized, double-blind study design, all players ingested 500mL of HRW or placebo (PLA) supplement 30min before the start of the tests. Over 4 days, maximal aerobic speed of Vameval test (MAS), time to exhaustion at MAS (Tlim), squat jump (SJ), counter-movement jump (CMJ) and five jump test (5JT) were evaluated. Also, rate of perceived exertion (RPE) and peak heart rate (HRpeak) were measured during the aerobic tests. For Vameval test, HRW ingestion improved MAS, HRpeak and RPE compared with the placebo condition. For Tlim test, HRW ingestion demonstrated improvements in time to exhaustion, RPE and HRpeak. However, no significant change was observed between HW and placebo conditions in SJ, CMJ, 5JT. 500mL of HRW can significantly improve HRpeak, time to exhaustion, RPE, with no significant effect on MAS, jumping performance in amateur endurance athletes.

Sex Differences in Maximal Oxygen Uptake Adjusted for Skeletal Muscle Mass in Amateur Endurance Athletes: A Cross Sectional Study.

Male athletes tend to outperform female athletes in several endurance sports. Maximum cardiac output can be estimated by maximal oxygen consumption (V˙O2max), and it has been established that men present V˙O2max values about 20% higher than women. Although sex differences in V˙O2max have already been well studied, few studies have assessed sex differences with regard to muscle oxidative capacity. The aim of this study was to compare aerobic muscle quality, accessed by V˙O2max and adjusted by lower limb lean mass, between male and female amateur triathletes. The study also aimed to compare sex differences according to V˙O2 submaximal values assessed at ventilatory thresholds. A total of 57 participants (23 women and 34 men), who had been training for Olympic-distance triathlon races, underwent body composition evaluation by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and performed a cardiorespiratory maximal test on a treadmill. Male athletes had significantly higher V˙O2max, both absolutely and when adjusted to body mass. Conversely, when V˙O2max was adjusted for lean mass, there was no significant difference between sexes. The same was observed at submaximal exercise intensities. In conclusion, differences in V˙O2max adjusted to body mass but not lean mass may explain, at least in part, sex differences in performance in triathlons, marathons, cycling, and other endurance sports.

Enduring stress: A quantitative analysis on coping profiles and sport well-being in amateur endurance athletes

Endurance athletes experience physical and psychological stress during training and competition that can inhibit performance and promote negative health implications (i.e., lower well-being) without proper coping mechanisms (McCormick et al., 2018; Sakar & Fletcher, 2014). Additionally, these athletes that train at an amateur level have received limited attention regarding coping with stress and how it impacts well-being (McCormick et al., 2018). The purpose of this study was threefold: to (a) determine common coping profiles of trained amateur endurance athletes, (b) explore the relationship between sport well-being and these coping profiles, and (c) examine the potential roles that appraisals might play in the coping-well-being relationship. The results yielded five distinct coping profiles: Mixed Adaptive Copers (MAC), Mixed Maladaptive Copers (MMC), Engaged Copers (EC), Avoidant Copers (AC), and Social Copers (SC). Coping profiles differed across various variables including sport well-being, appraisals, and demographic factors. Overall, MAC and EC had higher levels of sport well-being. MAC viewed stressors as a challenge (i.e., opportunity) compared to EC and AC. These findings suggest the complex nature of coping in sport and that athletes should develop an assortment of coping strategies that provide different strategies for various stressful situations.

Cardiac remodeling in amateur triathletes after 24 weeks of exercise training for a half-Ironman event: a brief report.

Triathletes' physiological adaptations to exercise training can have a different impact on cardiac remodeling based on the extreme exercise preparation. Moreover, cardiac remodeling might be different depending on whether triathletes have trained for many years or if they just decided to be more active. Nevertheless, data are limited in amateur endurance athletes and studies about them are key for their safety. Therefore, we investigated the effects of exercise training for a half-ironman on cardiac remodeling. A total of 24 amateur athletes underwent a 24-week exercise program and were followed by three-dimensional echocardiography to assess its global impact on cardiac remodeling. Subanalyses were performed based on participants past-training experience (low versus high). We found significant group effects on the right and left ventricle, significant time effect on the right ventricle. No significant interaction effects were observed. We observed significant correlations between the right ventricle, clinical and performance characteristics where the peak power output explained 38% of the variance, while the body surface area, weight and power at the second ventilatory threshold explained 34%, 31% and 30%, respectively. Changes in cardiac remodeling in response to an exercise program for a half-ironman are not homogeneous across the ventricles and are influenced by participants' past-training experience. This study strengthens our knowledge of extreme exercise training for a half-ironman to further develop better training programs and medical follow-up in amateur triathletes.

The Effects of a Ketogenic Diet on Anthropometric Parameters, Metabolic Adaptation, and Physical Fitness Performance in Amateur Endurance Athletes: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT Implementing ketogenic diets (KDs) in endurance athletes is currently an interesting topic. This article aimed to systematically review the effects of KDs on anthropometric, metabolic, and performance parameters in endurance sport athletes, highlighting the recommendations about how they should be used. This systematic review was performed under Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, and it was performed using 2 databases (i.e., PubMed and Web of Sciences). From the 1,485 studies initially identified, 14 were fully reviewed, and their outcome measures were extracted and analyzed. Regarding anthropometrics, KDs (i.e., daily caloric intake of carbohydrates [CH] < 5%) can lead to a reduction of body weight and percentage fat mass, with a possible impact on maintenance of fat-free mass. Regarding the metabolic adaptations, KDs lead to glycogen storage and fat mobilization, specifically, when using daily caloric intake of CH less than 8%. However, no positive or negative physical fitness and conditioning effects have been found when using KDs. In conclusion, although KDs could be a suitable strategy to induce anthropometric and metabolic changes, this type of diet could not be suitable to improve amateur endurance athletes’ performance.

Basal and post-exercise heart rate variability correlates with training load in endurance athletes

Objective: Heart rate variability has been proposed as a valid method to examine the individual response to training load in endurance athletes. Thanks to this tool, the relationship between basal and post-exercise Heart rate variability measurements can be analyzed during a microcycle (one week) using straight values or their coefficients of variation.
 Method: Ten amateur endurance athletes (n = 5 men, n = 5 women) were monitored during a 7-day microcycle that included three road-cycling sessions, two running sessions and two trail-running sessions. The RR series were measured for 5 minutes upon wake up and after training, in a seating position, using a chest strap.
 Results: Basal and post-exercise Heart rate variability measurements showed high correlation when weekly mean values were used, very similar to when coefficients of variation values were used. In women, the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) was: r= 0.73; RMSSD coefficients of variation (RMSSDcv) was: r= 0.66; natural logarithm (Ln) RMSSD: r= 0.68; LnRMSSDcv: r= 0.79; and in men it RMSSD was: r= 0.78; RMSSDcv: r= -0.62; LnRMSSD: r= 0.75; LnRMSSDcv: r= -0.73).
 Conclusion: the relationship between these two measurements could be useful to program the training loads of the following microcycle.

Training by feel: wearable fitness-trackers, endurance athletes, and the sensing of data

ABSTRACTA wide range of wearable fitness-trackers are currently available that allow users to measure, monitor, visualize, and record numerous training metrics including moving pace, distance traveled, average heart rate, and calories burned. Using qualitative data collected through semi-structured interviews with amateur endurance athletes, this paper examines what individuals do with their wearable fitness-trackers and the data they produce. Drawing on the work of Deborah Lupton and Sarah Maslen, we take up the concepts of “data sensing” and the “more-than-human sensorium” to highlight the embodied and sensory dimensions of digital self-tracking. We argue that while much of the appeal of fitness-tracking technologies lies in their ability to generate objective readings of one’s performance, these devices do not supplant less quantifiable and more subjective ways of understanding one’s self. On the contrary, the participants in our study use the quantitative data generated by a fitness-tracker in conjunction with their own self-assessments to gain a more holistic sense of what they are experiencing during training or on race day. For many of our research participants, the fitness-tracker became a central part of their identity and daily routine. Most participants were reluctant to train without their fitness-trackers, even when not preparing for an event.

The relationship between food addiction and patterns of disordered eating with exercise dependence: in amateur endurance athletes

PurposeExamine the prevalence and potential relationships among food addiction (FA)—as measured by Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0 (YFAS 2.0), eating disorders (ED)—as measured by Eating Disorder Diagnostic Scale (EDDS)—and exercise dependence (EXD)—as measured by Questionnaire to Diagnose Exercise Dependence in Endurance Sports (FESA), for the first time worldwide, in amateur endurance athletes.MethodsA total of 1022 German-speaking endurance athletes (44% male, Ø 36 years, Ø BMI 23 kg/m2) replied to an online questionnaire consisting of demographics, related parameters, and the German versions of YFAS 2.0, EDDS, and FESA.ResultsPrevalence of FA, ED, and EXD was 6.2, 6.5, and 30.5%. The probability for FA increases with BMI, thoughts about food and EXD score, and decreases with age and when an ED is present. People with FA and people with ED vs. people with both, FA&ED, differed significantly in this cohort. Strong significant relationships were found between FA and EXD (X2 (1) = 15.117, p < 0.001, n = 1022).ConclusionsA considerable number of amateur endurance athletes may suffer from FA. The association between FA and EXD is stronger than between ED and EXD, indicating FA as a potentially more relevant subject—than ED—for prevention or therapy in people with EXD. Further studies are needed to investigate parameters and relationships between the possibly involved types of ED, FA, and EXD.Level of evidenceLevel III, well-designed cohort analytic study.

Left ventricular hypertrophy in middle-aged endurance athletes: is it blood pressure related?

Both regular physical activity and hypertension may be related to increased myocardial thickness, but the interplay between these two factors in causing cardiac remodeling in athletes is still a matter of debate. The aim of this study was to analyze the relation between resting and peak exercise blood pressure (BP) and myocardial hypertrophy in healthy middle-aged amateur endurance athletes. The study included 30 male, long-term athletes (mean age 40.9±6.6 years) who underwent resting BP assessment, cardiopulmonary exercise testing with peak exercise BP measurement, and cardiac magnetic resonance. We found that interventricular septal diameter is increased in athletes with high-normal resting BP (n=11, 37%) - median 13 mm (interquartile range: 12-13.75 mm), but not in those with optimal or normal BP (n=19) - median 10 mm (10-11.75 mm), P=0.001. This finding is accompanied by significantly higher left and right ventricular mass index and larger left atrial area in the first group. These differences are even more pronounced in athletes in whom high-normal BP is accompanied by exaggerated blood pressure response (EBPR) to exercise, whereas isolated EBPR to exercise does not lead to hypertrophy or further left atrial enlargement. Prehypertension, isolated or combined with EBPR to exercise, affects cardiac remodeling in athletes. Identification of increased myocardial thickness in pure endurance middle-aged athletes should merit further investigation on masked hypertension.

Amateur endurance athletes' use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: a cross-sectional survey.

To explore amateur endurance athletes' use and views about non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). An online cross-sectional survey of amateur athletes at four athletic clubs. Of a sample of 129 of amateur athletes, 68% (n=88) reported using NSAIDs in the previous 12months (84.4% in triathletes, 70.9% in runners and 52.5% in cyclists). Overall, ibuprofen was the most popular drug (n=48). There was a lack of knowledge of adverse drug reactions, with only 26% of use advised by a doctor or pharmacist. There is high usage of NSAIDs in amateur athletes, including before and during events, largely without professional health advice. Informational needs of amateur athletes are not being met.

Sudden Cardiac Death in Sports: Not a Fatality!

Abstract Sudden cardiac death in sports is still controversial. Despite being a rare event, the death of an apparently healthy young athlete causes a major impact on the media. On the other hand, for being a rare event, it is clearly undervalued. Sports preparticipation cardiological assessment is one of the most effective preventive medical actions for professional and amateur endurance athletes. The regular and supervised practice of physical exercise does not kill. We believe that deaths are triggered by excessive physical training and use of drugs, in individuals with not diagnosed or undervalued heart diseases. It is necessary to make health professionals and athletes aware of the athletes' physiological limits, in addition to preparing the athletes properly when they try to overcome human limits.

“Fat” Chicks Who Run: Stigma Experienced by “Overweight” Endurance Athletes

Research on “overweight” and “obese” populations is extensive, but little of this research specifically addresses the “obese” or “overweight” amateur endurance athlete. Amateur endurance athletes often have bodies that defy the stereotype of the typical marathoner, swimmer, or triathlete. As a result, these athletes can experience stigma, both within their sporting communities as well as in the workplace, at home, and from spectators at athletic events. In an effort to discover what brings “overweight” adults to endurance sports and to recognize the barriers that they encounter to stay active in sports, this study seeks to identify the types of stigma that “overweight” endurance athletes face, the effects stigma has on their physical and mental health, and the effects stigma has on their participation in sports. Six amateur endurance athletes who identify as “overweight” were interviewed, and data were coded using Owen’s interpretive themes framework. Participants were found to experience stigma in being members of the “back of the pack,” in their entry into endurance sports, and in the lack of competition-quality clothing available for larger body types. Participants experienced negative physical and mental health outcomes as they internalized the stigma messages received during training and racing. No negative effects on participation were observed.

Disordered Eating and Exercise Dependence in Endurance Athletes

Background: The goal of this study was to assess the prevalence of disordered eating and exercise dependence among elite and amateur endurance athletes, both male and female, and to find out whether there was an association between disordered eating and exercise addiction in these athletes. Methods: 1031 participants of major German endurance events (745 male, 286 female, 528 elite athletes and 503 hobby athletes) with a mean age of 41.6 ± 10.7 years old completed a set of questionnaires, including the SCOFF questionnaire and the Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI). Results: A rate of 18.9% of the athletes surveyed were at risk for developing an eating disorder, slightly higher than that in the normal population, and 2.7% had the potential to develop an exercise addiction. There was a significant correlation between exercise addiction and eating disorders. No gender difference related to the probability of developing an eating disorder or an exercise addiction, nor a difference between elite or amateur athletes was found. Exercise addiction and eating disorders showed a significant correlation.

The Zero Heat Flux Method and Sweat Loss Modeling in Sports: Attempts of Next Generation Sports Information Systems

Today professional and amateur endurance athletes commonly use biofeedback systems to monitor their training and competition pace. Body core temperature and sweat loss are crucial factors influencing physical capabilities. Unfortunately, current gold standards are invasive and therefore impractical in active situations. Several non-intrusive technologies or models have been proposed, but partially are still unsuitable for active applications, not user friendly or lack knowledge on physiological relations. This paper is a first attempt for new information systems in sports and primarily assesses the Zero Heat Flux Method (ZHF) compared to aural temperatures during activity in two environments and four body sites. Furthermore, sweat loss has been analysed in various controlled experiments presented as simple modelling approach. Results showed that during activity in this set up, optimally 66% of differences in the zero heat flux method were within common core temperature deviations of ±0.5°C. Deviations varied highly across sites, the two conditions and individuals. The same is reflected from relations between body core temperature and sweat loss, since correlation coefficients increase with a more detailed subgrouping. In conclusion, it seems that slight modifications on the sensor assembly e.g. on insulation and size could partially solve remaining deviations. On contrast it's likely that skin wetness remains a problem. Due to manifold individual and environmental influences on sweat rate, insufficient technologies and impracticable models, it remains unclear how sweat loss could be reliably measured or predicted. From today's knowledge a further attempt could be using local sweat composition as predictor of blood sodium levels that potentially could describe hypo- and even hyper-hydration.

Dietary Behaviors of Amateur Endurance Athletes during Recovery from Exercise Training

PURPOSE: It is not known if amateur endurance athletes (runners, cyclists, triathletes, etc.) comply with nutrition guidelines for optimal recovery from exercise. We hypothesized that these athletes do not meet the recommendations from professional organizations for carbohydrate, protein, and fluid intake after exercise. METHODS: Data were collected by using an online questionnaire, 2-day food diaries and exercise logs. Specific post-exercise time periods in the food diaries were analyzed using computer software; nutrient intakes were compared to the published recommendations. RESULTS: Carbohydrate intake during the 30-min and 2-hr window immediately after exercise cessation was lower than recommended (24±7 vs. 70±2 g, p<0.001, 47±10 vs 70±2 g, p=0.012, respectively), as was carbohydrate intake between 2 and 4 hr after exercise (34±11 vs. 70±2 g, p=0.002) and between 4 and 6 hr (48±13 vs. 70±2 g, p=0.042); most subjects (75-88%) failed to meet the carbohydrate intake recommendations during these time periods. There was also a non-significant tendency for carbohydrate intake to be lower than recommendations in the 24 hours after exercise (390±24 vs. 419+15 g p=0.089). Protein intake within 1 hour of exercise and total daily protein intake met or exceeded the recommendations. Fluid intake within 1 hour of exercise met the recommendations. CONCLUSION: Amateur endurance athletes are not meeting the recommendations for post-exercise carbohydrate intake, specifically within 30 minutes, 2 hrs, 4 hours, and 6 hr of exercise, but they are meeting the recommendations for daily and post-exercise protein intake, and hydration status during exercise.

Electrocardiographic findings during marathon running in healthy athletes using a new telemedical approach

Objective: Despite the beneficial effects of regular endurance exercise on cardiovascular mortality and morbidity, complex ventricular arrhythmias and atrial fibrillation seem to be common in elite and amateur endurance athletes. Nevertheless, data on arrhythmias during endurance exercise is sparse. Our goal was to proof the feasibility for recording electrocardiogram (ECG) during marathon running, and to compare the first hour with the last hour of running. Methods: 11 healthy, male recreational athletes were equipped with a long-term Tele-ECG with continuous recording of the heart rhythm during running a marathon. All ECG data were directly transferred via mobile network from the device to the Telemedicine center (Campus, Berlin, Germany) for a subsequent online diagnosis (Streaming-Telemedtechnology) The recorded data was analyzed offline. Results: One runner had to be excluded due to artifact superimposed recording quality. Therefore 10 male runners were included in our study and completed a full or a half marathon. No episodes of atrial fibrillation could be detected. Two participants showed less than 10 ventricular premature beats (VPB) during running (Lown classification I). In another two athletes 15 polymorphic VPB (Lown classification IIIa) and 117 VPB (Lown classification IV b), including 8 couplets and one triplet were observed, respectively. There was no significant difference between the first and last hour of running concerning the number of ventricular premature beats (3.4±10.8 vs. 1.6±4.4, P = ns), mean heart rate (139.8±32.6 vs. 130.6±39.2 bpm, P = ns), maximal heart rate (150.0±32.3 vs. 149.4±37.1 bpm, P = ns), rate corrected QT-interval (444.3±35.7 vs. 439.2±25.2 ms, P = ns). Concerning heart rate variability (HRV), it remained unchanged during marathon running {HRV triangular index 11.2±9.9 vs. 10.9±8.5, P = ns; Standard deviation of all NN intervals (SDNN) 85.4±67.0 vs. 109.0±62.7 ms, P = ns}. Conclusion: We showed that ECG recording and immediate transmission of the signal by telemedicine during marathon running is feasible. In general, ventricular and supraventricular arrhythmias were rare during endurance sport in our athletes. In addition, there were no significant changes in ECG parameters during marathon running.

Elevated hair cortisol concentrations in endurance athletes

Engaging in intensive aerobic exercise, specifically endurance sports, is associated with HPA axis activation indicated by elevated cortisol levels. Whether the repeated short-term elevations in cortisol levels result in higher long-term cortisol exposure of endurance athletes has been difficult to examine since traditional methods of cortisol assessments (saliva, blood, urine) reflect only relatively short time periods. Hair segment analysis provides a new method to assess cumulative cortisol secretion over prolonged time periods in a retrospective fashion. The aim of this study was to investigate cumulative cortisol secretion over several months reflecting intensive training and competitive races by examining hair cortisol levels of endurance athletes. Hair samples were obtained from 304 amateur endurance athletes (long-distance runners, triathletes, cyclists) and 70 controls. Cortisol concentrations were determined in the first to third 3-cm hair segments most proximal to the scalp. In addition, self-report measures of training volume were obtained. Endurance athletes exhibited higher cortisol levels in all three hair segments compared to controls (p<.001). Positive correlations between the cortisol concentration in the first hair segment and each indicator of training volume were found (all p<.01). These data suggest that repeated physical stress of intensive training and competitive races among endurance athletes is associated with elevated cortisol exposure over prolonged periods of time. These findings may have important implications with regard to somatic and mental health of athletes which should be investigated in future research.