Alzheimer's Disease Drug Research Articles

Disease-modifying Drugs in Alzheimer's Disease: Indications and Efficacy Evaluation

The launch of lecanemab (an anti-Aβ antibody) has introduced a new treatment for Alzheimer's disease. In contrast to conventional therapeutic approaches to dementia, this drug requires new concepts in diagnosis, evaluation, and adverse effects. Specifically, evaluation of the efficacy of lecanemab is extremely important because this drug does not prevent but only slows the rate of disease progression. In this report, I have discussed future issues, including my personal viewpoint and also described the guidelines for promotion of the optimal use of lecanemab issued by the Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare.

Design, Synthesis, and Invitro Pharmacological Evaluation of Novel Resveratrol Surrogate Molecules against Alzheimer's Disease.

A series of resveratrol surrogate molecules were designed, synthesized and biologically evaluated for inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) along with anti-oxidant activity as potential novel multifunctional agents against Alzheimer's disease (AD). Six novel compounds were synthesized by reacting (E)-4-(3,5-Dimethoxystyryl) aniline with benzaldehyde and some selected derivatives of benzaldehyde in the presence of ethanol and a few drops of glacial acetic acid which followed the general scheme involved in the formation of Schiff bases. The spectral analysis data including FT-IR, 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, and Mass spectroscopy results were found to be in good agreement with the newly synthesized compounds (Resveratrol Surrogate Molecules 1-6). The synthesized compounds were evaluated for their dual cholinesterase inhibitory activities, cytotoxic effect, and anti-oxidant potential. The results showed that compound RSM5 showed potent inhibitory activity against AChE and BChE. In, addition the cytotoxicity of the compound RSM5 is less and found to be within the desirable limit indicating the potential safety of RSM5. Also, it possesses substantial anti-oxidant activity which qualifies RSM5 as an anti-AD agent. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that the molecule RSM5 had the most multifunctional properties and could be a promising lead molecule for the future development of drugs for Alzheimer's treatments.

Unveiling disulfidptosis-related biomarkers and predicting drugs in Alzheimer’s disease

Alzheimer's disease is the predominant form of dementia, and disulfidptosis is the latest reported mode of cell death that impacts various disease processes. This study used bioinformatics to analyze genes associated with disulfidptosis in Alzheimer's disease comprehensively. Based on the public datasets, the differentially expressed genes associated with disulfidptosis were identified, and immune cell infiltration was investigated through correlation analysis. Subsequently, hub genes were determined by a randomforest model. A prediction model was constructed using logistic regression. In addition, the drug-target affinity was predicted by a graph neural network model, and the results were validated by molecular docking. Five hub genes (PPEF1, NEUROD6, VIP, NUPR1, and GEM) were identified. The gene set showed significant enrichment for AD-related pathways. The logistic regression model demonstrated an AUC of 0.952, with AUC values of 0.916 and 0.864 in validated datasets. The immune infiltration analysis revealed significant heterogeneity between the Alzheimer's disease and control groups. High-affinity drugs for hub genes were identified. Through our study, a disease prediction model was constructed using potential biomarkers, and drugs targeting the genes were predicted. These results contribute to further understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying Alzheimer's disease.

Cinnamic Acid Derivatives: Recent Discoveries and Development Strategies for Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that leads to cognitive decline and memory impairment. It is characterized by the accumulation of Amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques, the abnormal phosphorylation of tau protein forming neurofibrillary tangles, and is often accompanied by neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, which contribute to neuronal loss and brain atrophy. At present, clinical anti-AD drugs are mostly single-target, improving the cognitive ability of AD patients, but failing to effectively slow down the progression of AD. Therefore, research on effective multi-target drugs for AD has become an urgent problem to address. The main derivatives of hydroxycinnamic acid, caffeic acid, and ferulic acid, are widely present in nature and have many pharmacological activities, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-Aβ deposition, and so on. The occurrence and development of AD are often accompanied by pathologies, such as oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and Aβ deposition, suggesting that caffeic acid and ferulic acid can be used in the research on anti-AD drugs. Therefore, in this article, we have summarized the multi-target anti-AD derivatives based on caffeic acid and ferulic acid in recent years, and discussed the new design direction of cinnamic acid derivatives as backbone compounds. It is hoped that this review will provide some useful strategies for anti-AD drugs based on cinnamic acid derivatives.

Rational design of a high-affinity fluorescent probe for visualizing monitoring the amyloid β clearance effect of anti-Alzheimer's disease drug candidates

Beta-amyloid (Aβ), the most pivotal pathological hallmark for Alzheimer's disease (AD) diagnosis and drug evaluation, was recognized by TZ095, a high-affinity fluorescent probe developed by rational molecular design. With a TICT mechanism, TZ095 exhibited remarkable affinity with Aβ aggregates (Kd = 81.54 nM for oligomers; Kd = 66.70 nM for fibril) and substantial fluorescence enhancement (F/F0 = 44), enabling real-time monitoring of Aβ in live cells and nematodes. Significantly, this work used TZ095 to construct a new protocol that can quickly and conveniently monitor Aβ changes at the cellular and nematode levels to evaluate the anti-AD efficacy of candidate compounds, and four reported Aβ-lowering drug candidates were administrated for validation. Imaging data demonstrated that TZ095 can visually and quantitatively track the effect of Aβ elimination after drug treatment. Furthermore, TZ095 excelled in ex vivo histological staining of 12-month-old APP/PS1 mouse brains, accurately visualizing Aβ plaques. Integrating CUBIC technology, TZ095 facilitated whole-brain, 3D imaging of Aβ distribution in APP/PS1 mice, enabling high-resolution in situ analysis of Aβ plaques. Collectively, these innovative applications of TZ095 offer a promising strategy for rapid, convenient, and real-time monitoring of Aβ levels in preclinical therapeutic assessments.

The End of Alzheimer’s Disease: Nudging Strategies to Encourage Mass Participation in Clinical Trials

Characterized by amyloid plaques, tau tangles, and neuronal loss, Alzheimer’s disease (AD) presents a significant public health challenge, with ever-growing prevalence due to an aging global population. By the time cognitive impairment is detected, the disease’s pathology is already extensive and difficult to halt. Despite advances in research and drug development, participation in AD drug trials remains crucial for discovering effective treatments and preventive measures. This article explores how behavioral economics can be employed to raise global awareness about Alzheimer’s, motivate individuals to undergo testing, and encourage involvement in experimental drug trials. By integrating nudging strategies with creative educational approaches, this study aims to increase support for AD research.

Donepezil Nanoemulsion Induces a Torpor-like State with Reduced Toxicity in Nonhibernating Xenopus laevis Tadpoles.

Achieving a reversible decrease of metabolism and other physiological processes in the whole organism, as occurs in animals that experience torpor or hibernation, could contribute to increased survival after serious injury. Using a Bayesian network tool with transcriptomic data and chemical structure similarity assessments, we predicted that the Alzheimer's disease drug donepezil (DNP) could be a promising candidate for a small molecule drug that might induce a torpor-like state. This was confirmed in a screening study with Xenopus laevis tadpoles, a nonhibernator whole animal model. To improve the therapeutic performance of the drug and minimize its toxicity, we encapsulated DNP in a nanoemulsion formulated with low-toxicity materials. This formulation is composed of emulsified droplets <200 nm in diameter that contain 1.250 mM DNP, representing ≥95% encapsulation efficiency. The DNP nanoemulsion induced comparable torpor-like effects to those produced by the free drug in tadpoles, as indicated by reduced swimming motion, cardiac beating frequency, and oxygen consumption, but with an improved biodistribution. Use of the nanoemulsion resulted in a more controlled increase of DNP concentration in the whole organism compared to free DNP, and to a higher concentration in the brain, which reduced DNP toxicity and enabled induction of a longer torpor-like state that was fully reversible. These studies also demonstrate the potential use of Xenopus tadpoles as a high-throughput in vivo screen to assess the efficacy, biodistribution, and toxicity of drug-loaded nanocarriers.

Air pollution amyloidogenesis is attenuated by the gamma-secretase modulator GSM-15606.

Chronic air pollution (AirPoll) is associated with accelerated cognitive decline and risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Correspondingly, wild-type and AD-transgenic rodents exposed to AirPoll have increased amyloid peptides and behavioral impairments. We examined the γ-secretase modulator GSM-15606 for potential AirPoll protection by its attenuating of amyloid beta (Aβ)42 peptide production. Male and female wild-type mice were fed GSM-15606 during an 8-week inhalation exposure to AirPoll subfractions, ambient nanoparticulate matter (nPM), and diesel exhaust particles (DEP). GSM-15606 decreased Aβ42 during nPM and DEP exposure without changing beta- or gamma-secretase activity or BACE1 and PS1 protein levels. DEP increased lateral ventricle volume by 25%. These enzyme responses are relevant to AD drug treatments, as well as to the physiological functions of the Aβ42 peptide. GSM-15606 attenuation of Aβ42 may benefit human exposure to AirPoll. Gamma-secretase modulator (GSM-15606) attenuates the amyloidogenic amyloid beta (Aβ)42 peptide during exposure to air pollution, which may be a mechanism by which air pollution increases Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk. AD drug treatments may also consider Aβ homeostasis among the chronic effects of GSM-15606 and other amyloid reduction treatments on secretase enzymes.

Astrocytes in the Ventral Hippocampus Bidirectionally Regulate Innate and Stress-Induced Anxiety-Like Behaviors in Male Mice.

The mechanisms of anxiety disorders, the most common mental illness, remain incompletely characterized. The ventral hippocampus (vHPC) is critical for the expression of anxiety. However, current studies primarily focus on vHPC neurons, leaving the role for vHPC astrocytes in anxiety largely unexplored. Here, genetically encoded Ca2+ indicator GCaMP6m and in vivo fiber photometry calcium imaging are used to label vHPC astrocytes and monitor their activity, respectively, genetic and chemogenetic approaches to inhibit and activate vHPC astrocytes, respectively, patch-clamp recordings to measure glutamate currents, and behavioral assays to assess anxiety-like behaviors. It is found that vHPC astrocytic activity is increased in anxiogenic environments and by 3-d subacute restraint stress (SRS), a well-validated mouse model of anxiety disorders. Genetic inhibition of vHPC astrocytes exerts anxiolytic effects on both innate and SRS-induced anxiety-related behaviors, whereas hM3Dq-mediated chemogenetic or SRS-induced activation of vHPC astrocytes enhances anxiety-like behaviors, which are reversed by intra-vHPC application of the ionotropic glutamate N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonists. Furthermore, intra-vHPC or systemic application of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonist memantine, a U.S. FDA-approved drug for Alzheimer's disease, fully rescues SRS-induced anxiety-like behaviors. The findings highlight vHPC astrocytes as critical regulators of stress and anxiety and as potential therapeutic targets for anxiety and anxiety-related disorders.

Mechanisms of mitophagy and oxidative stress in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion, vascular dementia, and Alzheimer's disease.

Neurological diseases have consistently represented a significant challenge in both clinical treatment and scientific research. As research has progressed, the significance of mitochondria in the pathogenesis and progression of neurological diseases has become increasingly prominent. Mitochondria serve not only as a source of energy, but also as regulators of cellular growth and death. Both oxidative stress and mitophagy are intimately associated with mitochondria, and there is mounting evidence that mitophagy and oxidative stress exert a pivotal regulatory influence on the pathogenesis of neurological diseases. In recent years, there has been a notable rise in the prevalence of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury (CI/RI), vascular dementia (VaD), and Alzheimer's disease (AD), which collectively represent a significant public health concern. Reduced levels of mitophagy have been observed in CI/RI, VaD and AD. The improvement of associated pathology has been demonstrated through the increase of mitophagy levels. CI/RI results in cerebral tissue ischemia and hypoxia, which causes oxidative stress, disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and damage to the cerebral vasculature. The BBB disruption and cerebral vascular injury may induce or exacerbate VaD to some extent. In addition, inadequate cerebral perfusion due to vascular injury or altered function may exacerbate the accumulation of amyloid β (Aβ) thereby contributing to or exacerbating AD pathology. Intravenous tissue plasminogen activator (tPA; alteplase) and endovascular thrombectomy are effective treatments for stroke. However, there is a narrow window of opportunity for the administration of tPA and thrombectomy, which results in a markedly elevated incidence of disability among patients with CI/RI. It is regrettable that there are currently no there are still no specific drugs for VaD and AD. Despite the availability of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved clinical first-line drugs for AD, including memantine, donepezil hydrochloride, and galantamine, these agents do not fundamentally block the pathological process of AD. In this paper, we undertake a review of the mechanisms of mitophagy and oxidative stress in neurological disorders, a summary of the clinical trials conducted in recent years, and a proposal for a new strategy for targeted treatment of neurological disorders based on both mitophagy and oxidative stress.

Considering challenges for the new Alzheimer's drugs: Clinical, population, and health system perspectives.

Recent approvals of amyloid immunotherapy drugs for early Alzheimer's disease (AD) have been highly controversial. In this piece, we consider challenges from the clinical, population health, and health systems perspectives to the role that the new AD drugs might be expected to play, now and in the future, in alleviating the morbidity caused by AD in the population. Clinically, short-term effects are small, adverse events are frequent, treatment regimens are burdensome, and, crucially, long-term effects are unknown. At a population level, there is always likely to be a trade-off between breadth of access and magnitude of benefit for any given individual. At a health system level, roll out of treatment even for only narrowly-defined patient groups will involve considerable resources to identify and treat eligible patients, with profound opportunity costs. Our considered view on current evidence is that there are challenges from each perspective to imagining a foreseeable future in which amyloid immunotherapy significantly alleviates AD morbidity at scale. HIGHLIGHTS: Recent approvals of Alzheimer's drugs have met with excitement but also controversy. Trial effects are small, adverse effects concerning, and long-term effects unknown. Results from trial cohorts may not generalize to broader, more complex patients. Significant resource requirements of eligibility assessment and drug administration. Use in "presymptomatic" populations is not supported by current evidence.

Substance Delivery across the Blood-Brain Barrier or the Blood-Retinal Barrier Using Organic Cation Transporter Novel Type 2 (OCTN2)

The membrane impermeability of a drug poses a significant challenge in drug research and development, preventing effective drug delivery to the target site. Specifically, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) presents a formidable obstacle to the delivery of drugs targeting the central nervous system (CNS) into the brain, whereas the blood-retinal barrier (BRB) presents a tremendous obstacle to the delivery of drugs targeting the ocular diseases into the eyes. The development of drugs for Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s disease targeting the CNS and for diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration targeting the eyes remains an unmet medical need for patients. Transporters play a crucial physiological role in maintaining homeostasis in metabolic organs. Various types of solute carrier (SLC) transporters are expressed in the capillary endothelial cells of the BBB, facilitating the delivery of nutrients from the blood flow to the brain. Therefore, carrier-mediated transport across the BBB can be achieved using SLC transporters present in capillary endothelial cells. It is well-known that CNS drugs typically incorporate N-containing groups, indicating that cation transporters facilitate their transport into the brain. In fact, carrier-mediated transport across the BBB can be accomplished using glucose transporter type 1 (Glut1) as a glucose transporter, L-type amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1) as a large neutral amino acid transporter, and H+/cation antiporter as a cation transporter. Surprisingly, although organic cation transporter novel type 2 (OCTN2) is expressed in the capillary endothelial cells, there has been limited investigation into OCTN2-mediated substance delivery into the brain across the BBB. Furthermore, it is suggested that OCTN2 is expressed at the BRB. In this prospective review, I present the advantages and possibilities of substance delivery into the brain across the BBB or into the eyes across the BRB, mediated by OCTN2 via carrier-mediated transport or receptor-mediated transcytosis.

Bio-Nano Synergy in Therapeutic Applications: Drug-Graphene Oxide Nanocomposites for Modulated Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition and Radical Scavenging.

The current study explores the synergistic application of biophysical chemistry and nanotechnology in therapeutic treatments, focusing specifically on the development of advanced biomaterials to repurpose FDA-approved Alzheimer's disease (AD) drugs as potent antioxidants. By integration of AD drugs into graphene oxide (GO) nanocomposites, an attempt to enhance the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition and increase radical scavenging activity is proposed. This bionano synergy is designed to leverage the unique properties of both the nanomaterial surface and the bioactive compounds, improving treatment effectiveness. The nanocomposites also promise targeted drug delivery, as GO can traverse the blood-brain barrier to inhibit AChE more effectively in AD patients. Furthermore, the drug-GO nanocomposite exhibits enhanced radical scavenging capabilities, offering additional therapeutic benefits. This study also elucidates a molecular level understanding on how the properties of the drugs are modified when integrated into nanocomposites with GO, enabling the development of more effective materials. The interdisciplinary approach presented in this study exploits the potential of nanotechnology to enhance drug delivery systems and achieve superior therapeutic outcomes through bionano synergy.

Consumer Perceptions of Safety Information in Direct-to-Consumer Print Advertisements for Alzheimer Drugs

Consumer Perceptions of Safety Information in Direct-to-Consumer Print Advertisements for Alzheimer Drugs

Screening Targets and Therapeutic Drugs for Alzheimer's Disease Based on Deep Learning Model and Molecular Docking.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a complex interplay of various factors. However, a satisfactory cure for AD remains elusive. Pharmacological interventions based on drug targets are considered the most cost-effective therapeutic strategy. Therefore, it is paramount to search potential drug targets and drugs for AD. We aimed to provide novel targets and drugs for the treatment of AD employing transcriptomic data of AD and normal control brain tissues from a new perspective. Our study combined the use of a multi-layer perceptron (MLP) with differential expression analysis, variance assessment and molecular docking to screen targets and drugs for AD. We identified the seven differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with the most significant variation (ANKRD39, CPLX1, FABP3, GABBR2, GNG3, PPM1E, and WDR49) in transcriptomic data from AD brain. A newly built MLP was used to confirm the association between the seven DEGs and AD, establishing these DEGs as potential drug targets. Drug databases and molecular docking results indicated that arbaclofen, baclofen, clozapine, arbaclofen placarbil, BML-259, BRD-K72883421, and YC-1 had high affinity for GABBR2, and FABP3 bound with oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids. Arbaclofen and YC-1 activated GABAB receptor through PI3K/AKT and PKA/CREB pathways, respectively, thereby promoting neuronal anti-apoptotic effect and inhibiting p-tau and Aβ formation. This study provided a new strategy for the identification of targets and drugs for the treatment of AD using deep learning. Seven therapeutic targets and ten drugs were selected by using this method, providing new insight for AD treatment.

Bifurcations in coupled amyloid-β aggregation-inflammation systems

A complex interplay between various processes underlies the neuropathology of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and its progressive course. Several lines of evidence point to the coupling between Aβ aggregation and neuroinflammation and its role in maintaining brain homeostasis during the long prodromal phase of AD. Little is however known about how this protective mechanism fails and as a result, an irreversible and progressive transition to clinical AD occurs. Here, we introduce a minimal model of a coupled system of Aβ aggregation and inflammation, numerically simulate its dynamical behavior, and analyze its bifurcation properties. The introduced model represents the following events: generation of Aβ monomers, aggregation of Aβ monomers into oligomers and fibrils, induction of inflammation by Aβ aggregates, and clearance of various Aβ species. Crucially, the rates of Aβ generation and clearance are modulated by inflammation level following a Hill-type response function. Despite its relative simplicity, the model exhibits enormously rich dynamics ranging from overdamped kinetics to sustained oscillations. We then specify the region of inflammation- and coupling-related parameters space where a transition to oscillatory dynamics occurs and demonstrate how changes in Aβ aggregation parameters could shift this oscillatory region in parameter space. Our results reveal the propensity of coupled Aβ aggregation-inflammation systems to oscillatory dynamics and propose prolonged sustained oscillations and their consequent immune system exhaustion as a potential mechanism underlying the transition to a more progressive phase of amyloid pathology in AD. The implications of our results in regard to early diagnosis of AD and anti-AD drug development are discussed.

Discovery of a novel Xanthone derivative P24 for anti-AD via targeting sTGFBR3

Soluble transforming growth factor beta receptor 3 (sTGFBR3) antagonist is a new focus in the research and development of Alzheimer's disease (AD) drugs. Our previous studies have identified sTGFBR3 as a promising new target for AD, with few targeted antagonists identified. In this study, we performed structural modeling of sTGFBR3 using AlphaFold2, followed by high-throughput virtual screening and surface plasmon resonance assays. which collectively identified Xanthone as potential compounds for targeting sTGFBR3. After optimizing the sTGFBR3-Xanthone complex using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, we prepared a series of novel Xanthone derivatives and evaluated their anti-inflammatory activity, toxicity, and structure-activity relationship in BV2 cell model induced by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) or APP/PS1/tau mouse brain extract (BE). Several derivatives with the most potent anti-inflammatory activity were tested for blood-brain barrier permeability and sTGFBR3 affinity. Derivative P24, selected for its superior properties, was further evaluated in vitro. The results indicated that P24 increased the activation of TGF-β signaling and decreased the activation of IκBα/NF-κB signaling by targeting sTGFBR3, thereby regulating the inflammation-phagocytosis balance in microglia. Moreover, the low acute toxicity, long half-life, and low plasma clearance of P24 suggest that it can be sustained in vivo. This property may render P24 a more effective treatment modality for chronic diseases, particularly AD. The study demonstrates P24 serve as potential novel candidates for the treatment of AD via antagonizing sTGFBR3.

Naturally Inspired Coumarin Derivatives in Alzheimer's Disease Drug Discovery: Latest Advances and Current Challenges.

The main feature of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, is the network of complex and not fully recognized neuronal pathways and targets involved in their onset and progression. The therapeutic treatment, at present mainly symptomatic, could benefit from a polypharmacological approach based on the development of a single molecular entity designed to simultaneously modulate different validated biological targets. This strategy is principally based on molecular hybridization, obtained by linking or merging different chemical moieties acting with synergistic and/or complementary mechanisms. The coumarin core, widely found in nature, endowed with a recognized broad spectrum of pharmacological activities, large synthetic accessibility and favourable pharmacokinetic properties, appears as a valuable, privileged scaffold to be properly modified in order to obtain compounds able to engage different selected targets. The scientific literature has long been interested in the multifaceted profiles of coumarin derivatives, and in this review, a survey of the most important results of the last four years, on both natural and synthetic coumarin-based compounds, regarding the development of anti-Alzheimer's compounds is reported.

Polysaccharides extracted from common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) attenuate cognitive impairment via suppressing RAGE/p38/NF-κB signaling and dysbiosis in AlCl3-treated rats

Patients may find it challenging to accept several FDA-approved drugs for Alzheimer's disease (AD) treatment due to their unaffordable prices and side effects. Despite the known antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and microbiota-regulating effects of common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) polysaccharides (FEP), their specific role in preventing AD has not been determined. Here, this study investigated the preventive effects of FEP on AD development in AlCl3-treated rats. The physical properties of FEP were evaluated using X-ray diffraction, FTIR, TGA, DSC, monosaccharide composition, molecular weight, and scanning electron microscopy. The results demonstrated that FEP administration improved memory and learning ability in AlCl3-treated rats. Additionally, AD pathological biomarkers (APP, BACE1, Aβ1–42, and p-TauSer404), inflammatory-associated proteins (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and Iba1), and MDA and the RAGE/p38/NF-κB pathway were elevated in AlCl3-treated rats. Moreover, these effects were reversed by the upregulation of LRP1, anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10), antioxidant enzymes (SOD and catalase), and autophagy proteins (Atg5, Beclin-1, and LC3B). Furthermore, FEP treatment increased the levels of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and the abundance of SCFAs-producing microbes ([Eubacterium]_xylanophilum_group, Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, Lactobacillus). Overall, FEP mitigated oxidative stress, RAGE/p38/NF-κB-mediated neuroinflammation, and AD-associated proteins by upregulating autophagy and SCFA levels, which led to the amelioration of cognitive impairment through microbiota–gut–brain communication in AlCl3-treated rats.

Pharmacokinetic and molecular docking studies to pyrimidine drug using Mn3O4 nanoparticles to explore potential anti-Alzheimer activity

Alzheimer disease (AD) is the cause of dementia and accounts for 60–80% cases. Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a multifunctional cytokine that provides resistance to infections, inflammation, and cancer. It developed as a prospective therapeutic target against multiple autoimmune and inflammatory disorders. Cholinergic insufficiency is linked to Alzheimer's disease, and several cholinesterase inhibitors have been created to treat it, including naturally produced inhibitors, synthetic analogs, and hybrids. In the current study, we tried to prepared compounds may also support the discovery and development of novel therapeutic and preventative drugs for Alzheimer's using manganese tetroxide nanoparticles (Mn3O4-NPs) as a catalyst to generate compounds with excellent reaction conditions. The Biginelli synthesis yields 4-(4-cyanophenyl)-6-oxo-2-thioxohexahydropyrimidine-5-carbonitrile when the 4-cyanobenzaldehyde, ethyl cyanoacetate, and thiourea were coupled with Mn3O4-NPs to produce compound 1. This multi-component method is non-toxic, safe, and environmentally friendly. The new approach reduced the amount of chemicals used and preserved time. Compound 1 underwent reactions with methyl iodide, acrylonitrile, chloroacetone, ethyl chloroacetate, and chloroacetic acid/benzaldehyde, each of the synthetized compounds was docked with TNF-α converting enzyme. These compounds may also support the discovery and development of novel therapeutic and preventative drugs for Alzheimer's disease. The majority of the produced compounds demonstrated pharmacokinetic features, making them potentially attractive therapeutic candidates for Alzheimer's disease treatment.