Altitude Populations Research Articles

Does regenerative strategy vary between populations? A test using a narrowly distributed Atlantic Rainforest palm species

Germination rate and seed mass are important factors determining the proportion of seedlings that become established in a habitat, especially where resources are limited and under adverse environmental conditions. Variation in seed attributes can determine a species’ potential to adapt to new climates. This study aimed to investigate the germination behavior of Lytocaryum weddellianum along climatic gradients at two altitudes in the Serra dos Orgaos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. We conducted ex situ experiments on germination under two light conditions (light or dark) and three levels of water potential (Ψ = 0, −0.4 or −0.8 MPa) over 8 months. In addition, seeds of different sizes were sown and after 6 months seedlings were divided into shoot and root components. The following growth parameters were measured: root, shoot and total biomass, leaf area, specific leaf area and leaf area ratio. Our results showed that the high- and low-altitude populations had different germination rates, seed mass, and resource allocation in seedlings. The lower altitude population, with higher temperatures and humidity, higher germination rates, produced heavier seeds, and their seedlings invested more in root and total biomass. Meanwhile, seedlings from the higher altitude site, with less available light, had a greater investment in foliar parameters. These differences in the two populations’ seedling establishment strategies over an altitudinal gradient in the Serra dos Orgaos suggest that the species may have the potential to adapt to predicted climate change in this region.

High light intensity plays a major role in emergence of population level variation in Arabidopsis thaliana along an altitudinal gradient.

Environmental conditions play an important role in the emergence of genetic variations in natural populations. We identified genome-wide patterns of nucleotide variations in the coding regions of natural Arabidopsis thaliana populations. These populations originated from 700 m to 3400 m a.m.s.l. in the Western Himalaya. Using a pooled RNA-Seq approach, we identified the local and global level population-specific SNPs. The biological functions of the SNP-containing genes were primarily related to the high light intensity prevalent at high-altitude regions. The novel SNPs identified in these genes might have arisen de novo in these populations. In another approach, the FSTs of SNP-containing genes were correlated with the corresponding climatic factors. ‘Radiation in the growing season’ was the only environmental factor found to be strongly correlated with the gene-level FSTs. In both the approaches, the high light intensity was identified as the primary abiotic stress associated with the variations in these populations. The differential gene expression analysis between field and controlled condition grown plants also showed high light intensity as the primary abiotic stress, particularly for the high altitude populations. Our results provide a genome-wide perspective of nucleotide variations in populations along altitudinal gradient and their putative role in emergence of these variations.

Social polymorphism in the sweat bee Lasioglossum (Evylaeus) calceatum.

Temperate-zone socially polymorphic sweat bees (Hymenoptera: Halictidae) are ideal model systems for elucidating the origins of eusociality, a major evolutionary transition. Bees express either social or solitary behaviour in different parts of their range, and social phenotype typically correlates with season length. Despite their obvious utility, however, socially polymorphic sweat bees have received relatively little attention with respect to understanding the origins of eusociality. Lasioglossum (Evylaeus) calceatum is a widespread sweat bee that is thought to be socially polymorphic, with important potential as an experimental model species. We first determined the social phenotype of L. calceatum at three sites located at different latitudes within the UK. We then investigated sociality in detail across two years at the southernmost site. We found that L. calceatum exhibits latitudinal social polymorphism within the UK; bees were solitary at our two northern sites but the majority of nests were social at our southern site. Sociality in the south was characterised by a relatively small mean of two and 3.5 workers per nest in each year, respectively, and a small to medium mean caste-size dimorphism of 6.6 %. Foundresses were smaller in our more northern and high altitude populations. Sociality is clearly less specialised than in some closely related obligately social species but probably more specialied than other polymorphic sweat bees. Our research provides a starting point for future experimental work to investigate mechanisms underlying social polymorphism in L. calceatum.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00040-016-0473-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in iPSC‐derived neurons in subjects with Chronic Mountain Sickness

Chronic mountain sickness (CMS) is a disease that potentially threatens a large segment of the high altitude population (more than 140 million highlanders) during extended living over 2500m. Patients with CMS suffer from severe hypoxemia, erythrocytosis and neurologic manifestations including migraine, headache, mental fatigue, confusion, and memory loss. The only therapy, which is inadequate, is periodic phlebotomy. By understanding the mechanisms of CMS neuropathology, we wish to be able to develop better therapeutic strategies, not only for CMS but also for those diseases that are relevant at the sea level as well.In the current study, we used induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)‐derived neurons from subjects with CMS and others without any evidence of CMS (non‐CMS) living at the same altitude, as a model to study CMS in vitro. We noticed that CMS neurons are more sensitive to the culture environment than non‐CMS, with more blebbing or beadings of dendrites after 3 weeks in culture. Although intracellular ATP level is significantly decreased in the CMS group, there was no difference in LDH release between the two groups. Transmission electron microscopic images illustrated that CMS neurons have a decreased mitochondrial volume density, cristae and mitochondrial length. Real‐time PCR analysis confirmed that CMS neurons have 1) decreased mitochondrial biogenesis gene such as PGC1 and increased mitophagy genes including PARKIN and PINK; 2) decreased fission and fusion genes including DRP1, FIS, OPA, and MFN2, as well as 3) many altered nuclear and mitochondrial gene including UCP2, ANT1, VDAC, BCL2‐XL, NMNAT1, and VEGF, suggesting the present of mitochondrial dysfunction in CMS neurons. Within these genes, NMNAT1, a central enzyme of NAD biogenesis, attracts attention because overexpression of NMNAT1 is believed to be neuroprotective in neuronal morphogenesis. Decreased NAD level, due to a down‐regulation of NMNAT1, has been shown to disrupt the nuclear‐mitochondrial communication and lead to mitochondrial dysfunction and render cells in a pseudohypoxic state under normoxia. Thus, we speculate that a similar phenomenon takes place in CMS neurons; indeed we have confirmed that both NMNAT1 gene expression and NAD level are lower in CMS neurons as compared to non‐CMS neurons. We conclude that a decreased NAD level might be one of reasons for mitochondrial dysfunction and results in a vulnerable survival phenotype in CMS neurons.Support or Funding Informationsupported by NIH 5P01HL098053

The Expression Plasticity of Hypoxia Related Genes in High-Altitude and Plains Nanorana parkeri Populations

For species that have a broad geographic distribution, adaptive variation may be attributable to gene expression plasticity. Nanorana parkeri is an anuran endemic to the southern Tibetan Plateau where it has an extensive altitudinal range(2850 to 5100 m asl). Low oxygen concentration is one of the main environmental characteristics of the Tibetan Plateau. Hypoxia-inducible factor α subunits(HIF-1α and HIF-2α, encoded by Endothelial PAS domain protein 1(EPAS1)) and associated genes(e.g., vascular endothelial growth factor(VEGF) and Erythropoietin(EPO)) play crucial roles in maintaining oxygen homeostasis. In this study, we compared the expression of HIF-1A, VEGF, EPAS1 and EPO mRNA between two populations of N. parkeri: one population inhabiting the native high altitudes, and the second living in, and being acclimated to, the lower plains(70 m asl). The expression of HIF-1A, VEGF and EPAS1 mRNA in the high altitude population were significantly higher than in the acclimated population, whereas there was no significant difference for EPO between two groups. Our results indicated that gene expression plasticity may make significant contributions to local adaptation of species that have broad altitudinal distributions. In addition, we deepen our understanding of the adaptive potential of this species by evaluating the experiments in the scope of its evolutionary history.

Genetic and Phenotypic Differentiation of an Andean Intermediate Altitude Population

Background: Highland populations living permanently under hypobaric hypoxia have been subject of extensive research because of the relevance of their physiological adaptations for the understanding of human health and disease. In this context, what is considered high altitude is a matter of interpretation and whilst the adaptive processes at high altitude (above 3000 m) are well documented, the effects of moderate altitude (below 3000 m) on the phenotype are less well established.

Patterns of twenty‐first century forest loss across a global network of important sites for biodiversity

AbstractThe contribution that remotely sensed satellite imagery could make to biodiversity monitoring is widely recognized, but remains largely unfulfilled at regional and global scales. Here, we use a publicly accessible global dataset to quantify forest loss during 2000–2012 across the world's 7279 Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs) that support forest bird species, and examine correlates of forest loss. Forest covered around 2 912 000 km2 in these IBAs in 2000, but had decreased by around 73 000 km2 by 2012, a 2.52% loss across all IBAs. The median loss within IBAs was 0.87% during this period, although high losses on some IBAs skewed the mean to 2.59%. Rates of forest loss in IBAs were highest in South America and South East Asia. The rate of forest loss increased notably between 2003 and 2007. In addition to the effect of year, the best fit model of forest loss contained coverage of IBAs by protected areas, altitude, slope, GDP and human population density. The parameter estimates of a best fit model indicated forest loss decrease with increased protected area coverage, increased IBA altitude, increased IBA steepness and increased IBA human population. Forest loss decreased with per capita national GDP. The model explained only a small amount of variation in forest loss and as such is inappropriate to make predictions about where future loss will occur. We provide open access code to undertake online analysis of future forest cover change data, aiding the remote monitoring of forest cover at any suite of priority sites.

Plasticity of metamorphic traits in a high-altitude toad: interactive effects of food level and temperature

In organisms with complex life cycles, such as amphibians, morphological variation itself is strongly influenced by environmental factors and maternal effects. Although temperature and food level exert a strong influence on larval growth and development, little is known about the interacting effects of these factors on age and size at metamorphosis. In this study, plasticity in growth rates, larval mass, larval period, and body size at metamorphosis were experimentally examined for a high-altitude toad (Bufo minshanicus) under different combinations of temperature and food level. Larval period and mass at metamorphosis were sensitive to food level, and varied with temperature. At high food level, tadpoles reared at 29.8°C had shorter larval period lengths and larger mass at metamorphosis than those reared at 25.8 and 22.6°C, but not between 25.8 and 22.6°C. Interestingly, tadpoles at 29.8°C that were offered with a higher level of food supply achieved a larger size than those with a lower level of food supply; however, food supply did not affect body mass at the two lower temperature settings. Thus, the effects of food level were dependent on water temperature. Although there was high mortality at 29.8°C, surviving tadpoles have been much stronger to achieve faster growth and reach a larger mass at metamorphosis, which were positively correlated with juvenile survival and adult fecundity. Thus, under varied environmental conditions, we could say that there is more plasticity in development and growth of larvae in high altitude populations than in the same species or other species from low altitude populations.

Ecological niche modelling of three Mediterranean pine species in the south of Spain: a tool for afforestation/reforestation programs in the twenty-first century

Climate change models predict an increase in aridity in many parts of the world for the twenty-first century, which is likely to be more intense in the Mediterranean basin than in other regions. This study addresses the potential distribution of three Mediterranean pine species (Pinus pinea L., P. halepensis Mill. and P. pinaster Aiton) in southern Spain in response to the forecast increased aridity. Pines constitute a useful source of various types of raw materials, which has led to their increasing introduction around the world. The study was based on ecological niche modelling using multinomial logistic regression, over an area spanning about 8.7 million ha in the south of Spain. In total, 11 explanatory variables were included, drawing on measurements made at high resolution (200 m). Four different periods were studied: the reference period (1961–2000), early twenty-first century (2011–2040), middle twenty-first century (2041–2070) and late twenty-first century (2071–2100). Future time slices were analysed in three different scenarios: B1, A1b and A2 in the CNCM3 general circulation model. The results predict a wider distribution for stone pine, which could expand its potential area in southern Spain. In contrast, Aleppo pine, and especially cluster pine, would reduce their present distribution, with cluster pine occupying higher altitude sites while low altitude populations diminished. The validation model enables accurate maps to be produced, representing powerful tools for afforestation/reforestation programs in the future.

Stunting and the Prediction of Lung Volumes Among Tibetan Children and Adolescents at High Altitude

This study examines the extent to which stunting (height-for-age Z-scores ≤ -2) compromises the use of low altitude prediction equations to gauge the general increase in lung volumes during growth among high altitude populations. The forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume (FEV1) of 208 stunted and 365 non-stunted high-altitude Tibetan children and adolescents between the ages of 6 and 20 years are predicted using the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANESIII) and the Global Lung Function Initiative (GLF) equations, and compared to observed lung volumes. Stunted Tibetan children show smaller positive deviations from both NHANESIII and GLF prediction equations at most ages than non-stunted children. Deviations from predictions do not correspond to differences in body proportions (sitting heights and chest circumferences relative to stature) between stunted and non-stunted children; but appear compatible with the effects of retarded growth and lung maturation that are likely to exist among stunted children. These results indicate that, before low altitude standards can be used to evaluate the effects of hypoxia, or before high altitude populations can be compared to any other group, it is necessary to assess the relative proportion of stunted children in the samples. If the proportion of stunted children in a high altitude population differs significantly from the proportion in the comparison group, lung function comparisons are unlikely to yield an accurate assessment of the hypoxia effect. The best solution to this problem is to (1) use stature and lung function standards based on the same low altitude population; and (2) assess the hypoxic effect by comparing observed and predicted values among high altitude children whose statures are most like those of children on whom the low altitude spirometric standard is based-preferably high altitude children with HAZ-scores ≥ -1.

Oxidative stress and antioxidant status in a lizard Phrynocephalus vlangalii at different altitudes or acclimated to hypoxia

Oxidative stress is a major challenge for the survival of animals living on plateaus; however, lifelong exposure to high altitudes could generate certain adaptabilities which make them more tolerant to these environments. The aim of the present study was to compare the oxidative stress and antioxidant status between low altitude (LA, 2900m) and high altitude (HA, 4200m) populations of Phrynocephalus vlangalii. The results showed that malondialdehyde levels in the HA populations decreased significantly in the brain, but markedly increased in the muscle and had no significant difference in the liver compared to LA populations. The activity of catalase in the brain was much higher in HA than LA. Except for total antioxidant capacity and glutathione reductase, other antioxidants were similar between the two populations in livers. By contrast, the levels of most antioxidants in muscle decreased markedly with elevation. We also explored the effects of hypoxia on oxidative damage and antioxidant defenses in P. vlangalii. The lizards were acclimated in a simulated hypoxic chamber (15% O2 and 8% O2) for 6weeks. The results showed that in the 8% O2 group, the levels of malondialdehyde, catalase, glutathione and total antioxidant capacity in the brain, and malondialdehyde, catalase and superoxide dismutase in the liver were significantly higher than the 15% O2 group. These findings indicate that in this species the oxidative stress and antioxidant capacity are subject to altitude and hypoxia and this lizard may have acquired some ability to deal with the oxidative stress.

Chest circumference and sitting height among children and adolescents from Lhasa, tibet compared to other high altitude populations.

The adaptation of human beings to a high altitude environment during growth has been reported in several populations but is less known for Tibetans. The objective of this study was to investigate similarities and differences of Tibetans in patterns and characteristics of physical growth and development in comparison to other high altitude populations. We measured the stature, weight, chest circumference and sitting height of 2,813 healthy children and adolescents aged 6- to 21-year-old living at 3,658-4,500 m in Tibet, China, and compared them with published data from other high altitude populations. Eligible participants must have been born and raised in Tibet, and both their parents' families have to be Tibetan for at least the past three generations. The physical growth and development of children and adolescents in Tibet and the Andes followed similar patterns, such as delayed growth, short stature and sitting height, and large chest dimensions. Relative to stature, Tibetan sitting heights are similar to Andeans, but chest circumferences are smaller. Findings from this study reinforce the conclusion that Tibetan and Andean populations have adapted differently to high altitude hypoxia. The physical features of each population may result from unique adaptation to hypoxia, as well as socio-ecological factors, such as poor nutrition.

Rare diploid females coexist with rare males: a novel finding in triploid parthenogenetic populations in the psyllid Cacopsylla myrtilli (W. Wagner, 1947) (Hemiptera, Psylloidea) in northern Europe.

Using a cytological approach, diploid females were found coexisting with rare males in triploid apomictic parthenogenetic populations of the psyllid Cacopsylla myrtilli (W. Wagner, 1947) in Norway, Sweden, Finland and northwest Russia. Diploid females were easily distinguished from triploid apomictic females by the presence of 13 chiasmate bivalents instead of 39 univalent chromosomes at metaphase I. Abundance equaled that of males, but the proportion of males and diploid females was significantly greater in high altitude compared with low altitude populations. Males mated with females but showed no mating preference for diploid females. Lack of genuine bisexual reproduction owing to either asynaptic meiosis in males, or rarity of males with normal meiosis, suggests that diploids are produced in every generation by parthenogenetic females as reversals from triploidy, with their production being enhanced by environmental factor(s) associated with high altitude. This is further supported by the observation that within a population the COI haplotype found in rare males was the same as that in parthenogenetic triploid females. Thus, in northern Europe parthenogenesis in C. myrtilli is obligate, geographic parthenogenesis. Bisexual populations of C. myrtilli should be looked for in Central and Southern Europe. From the evolutionary point of view, the presence of males and diploid females with normal meiosis in parthenogenetic populations could be significant as they exhibit the potential to re-evolve either a new sexual species of parthenogenetic ancestry or a new parthenogenetic species by contagious parthenogenesis.

Genetic and phenotypic differentiation of an Andean intermediate altitude population.

Highland populations living permanently under hypobaric hypoxia have been subject of extensive research because of the relevance of their physiological adaptations for the understanding of human health and disease. In this context, what is considered high altitude is a matter of interpretation and while the adaptive processes at high altitude (above 3000 m) are well documented, the effects of moderate altitude (below 3000 m) on the phenotype are less well established. In this study, we compare physiological and anthropometric characteristics as well as genetic variations in two Andean populations: the Calchaquíes (2300 m) and neighboring Collas (3500 m). We compare their phenotype and genotype to the sea-level Wichí population. We measured physiological (heart rate, oxygen saturation, respiration rate, and lung function) as well as anthropometric traits (height, sitting height, weight, forearm, and tibia length). We conducted genome-wide genotyping on a subset of the sample (n = 74) and performed various scans for positive selection. At the phenotypic level (n = 179), increased lung capacity stood out in both Andean groups, whereas a growth reduction in distal limbs was only observed at high altitude. At the genome level, Calchaquíes revealed strong signals around PRKG1, suggesting that the nitric oxide pathway may be a target of selection. PRKG1 was highlighted by one of four selection tests among the top five genes using the population branch statistic. Selection tests results of Collas were reported previously. Overall, our study shows that some phenotypic and genetic differentiation occurs at intermediate altitude in response to moderate lifelong selection pressures.

Influence of seed priming and storage time on germination and enzymatic activity of selected Berberis species

Effect of various priming treatments, storage conditions and seed collection sites on seed germination of selected species of Berberis i.e. B. aristata and B. jaeschkeana was studied. Pre-soaking the seeds in different treatments followed by incubation at 25/10 °C (light: dark; 16:8 h) revealed variation in germination percentage, mean germination time (MGT), germination rate and seed vigour index. Seed treated with vermiwash (1:4 ratio) showed maximum germination percentage in B. aristata (92 %) and 1:10 ratio in B. jaeschkeana (50.6 %). Storage conditions (cold–dry for 1–4 months) and collection sites found to be effective for increasing germination percentage and germination rate in B. jaeschkeana at both the altitude (3200 and 3700 m asl) and B. aristata at higher altitude (2600 m asl) only. Further, germinated seedlings were analysed for enzymatic activity (Catalase and peroxidase) and found to be negatively correlated with catalase and positive with peroxidase activity for germination percentage in both species. Role of catalase and peroxidase in seed germination was associated with formation of reactive oxygen species which was found effective when treating with hydrogen peroxide. The potential for germination after various priming treatments especially vermiwash and thiourea is recommended and precursors such as hydrogen peroxide would be preferred in these species especially for reducing the MGT. Cold–dry storage would be preferred for Berberis species of higher altitude population.

New species, combinations and range extensions in Hesperantha Ker Gawl. (Iridaceae: Crocoideae) from western South Africa

The southern and tropical African genus Hesperantha, now with some 88 species, is distinguished in subfam. Crocoideae by the style dividing near or below the mouth of the perianth tube into relatively long style branches and, with a few exceptions, by woody corm tunics. We describe three new species from Northern Cape, South Africa discovered in September 2014. Hesperantha palustris (sect. Concentricae) from marshes at high elevation and Hesperantha filiformis (sect. Concentricae) from rocky sites, were both collected on the Hantamsberg. H. palustris is one of the tallest species in the genus, reaching up to 480mm, with moderate-sized white flowers opening after dark. The diminutive H. filiformis, one of only a few species with just three leaves, has a perianth tube slightly longer than the spreading white tepals. The third new species, Hesperantha eremophila, has the flat-based corm of sect. Hesperantha and is restricted to the Vandersterrberg in the Richtersveld National Park. We also recognize Hesperantha falcata subsp. lutea for populations with yellow flowers opening during the day and closing in late afternoon. Typical plants of H. falcata have white flowers opening in the late afternoon. We also record two range extensions: an additional population of the Roggeveld Escarpment endemic, Hesperantha secunda, from the Keiskie Mtns SW of Calvinia; and high altitude populations of Hesperantha rivulicola from 1 380m on the Hantamsberg, otherwise known from lower elevations near Nieuwoudtville and Calvinia (760–980m).

Genetic versus environmental contributions to variation in seedling resprouting in Nothofagus obliqua

Resprouting is an almost universal functional trait in temperate angiosperms and confers persistence at an individual level after the loss of above-ground biomass. The importance of genetic versus environmental sources of intraspecific variation in resprouting traits is largely unknown. We conducted two genetic field trials, 400 m apart in altitude, in order to sequentially assess seedling resprouting in four environmentally contrasting Argentinean populations of Nothofagus obliqua Mirb. (Oerst). We also performed one nursery test to determine whether populations differed in early root/shoot biomass partition, a key trade-off affecting resprouting. Initial resprouting vigour and final survival were higher in our warmer test site, located 300 m below the core range of the species. The main contrasts between populations were found for pre-clipping seedling size and resprouting profusion, the latter trait showing a clear trade-off with resprouting vigour. Site × population interactions were due mainly to the behaviour of the highest altitude population, suggesting its divergent adaptive trajectory and higher plasticity for resprouting traits. Within populations, trait heritability was low, in general. Episodic frost, which may limit resprouting vigour and final success, had a lower incidence in the altitudinal and xeric limit populations. Overall, our work revealed genetic variation between populations of N. obliqua in traits that determine the success of seedling resprouting, probably associated with divergent selection. Low trait heritability suggests limited in situ micro-evolutionary capacities for resprouting traits under ongoing climate warming; phenotypic plasticity may play an important role in population persistence at the low positions of the elevation gradients N. obliqua currently inhabits.

Population genetic structure and disease in montane boreal toads: more heterozygous individuals are more likely to be infected with amphibian chytrid

Amphibians are more threatened than any other vertebrate group, with 41 % of species classified as threatened. The causes of most declines are not well understood, though many declines have been linked to disease. Additionally, amphibians are physiologically constrained to moist habitats and considered poor dispersers; thus, they may suffer genetic consequences of population isolation. To understand threats to the persistence of boreal toads (Bufo boreas) in Glacier National Park, USA, we genotyped 551 individuals at 11 microsatellite loci and used Bayesian clustering methods to describe population genetic structure and identify barriers to gene flow. We found evidence of two primary genetic groups that differed substantially in elevation and two secondary groups within the high elevation group. There was also evidence of further substructure within the southern high elevation group, suggesting mountain ridges are barriers to gene flow at local scales. Overall, genetic variation was high, but allelic richness declined with increasing elevation, reflecting greater isolation or smaller effective population sizes of high altitude populations. We tested for Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), the fungal pathogen which causes chytridiomycosis, and we found that 35 of 199 toads were positive for Bd. Unexpectedly, more heterozygous individuals were more likely to be infected. This suggests that dispersal facilitates the spread of disease because heterozygosity may be highest where dispersal and gene flow are greatest.

Altitudinal effects on the life history of the Anatolian lizard(Apathya cappadocica, Werner 1902) from southeastern Anatolia, Turkey

Altitudinal gradients are an important variable in testing the life history traits (e.g., longevity, age at maturity, and body size) of organisms. In this study, the life history traits of the Anatolian lizard Apathya cappadocica were examined from 3 populations from different altitudes (Kilis, 697 m; Şanlıurfa, 891 m; Diyarbakır, 1058 m) from southeastern Anatolia, Turkey. Age structure was determined by using skeletochronology. Males in all populations were the larger sex; therefore, the populations showed male biases that were negative by the sexual size dimorphism index. Males in Diyarbakır (high altitude) were also younger than males in the other populations. There were no significant differences between the males and females of all 3 populations in terms of either age or snout-vent length except in the Şanlıurfa population, in which males were larger than females. Life history traits of A. cappadocica across altitudinal gradients may be affected by climatic factors, as males from the middle altitude population in Şanlıurfa, which inhabits a warmer and more arid environment, tended to be larger than males and females in Kilis and Diyarbakır.

Are high altitude populations at high risk of heart disease? A cross-sectional study in Nepal

calculators integrated into computer systems and the active use of data/audit feedback to providers Innovative approaches to accessing patients Conclusion: The gains, while largely positive, have not been without debate. For example, many assessments have been non-face-to-face, and some wonder about the level of follow-up given the target’s focus on assessment rather than management. Guidelines were also updated to better reflect contemporary evidence and practice. The key focus for 2015 and beyond is to shift from an adapted Framingham based risk equation to a New Zealand specific equation. This presentation will review these success factors, progress to date with CVD Risk and potential next steps.