Alternative Stable State Theory Research Articles

The interplay of facilitation and competition drives the emergence of multistability in dryland plant communities.

Within communities, species are wrapped in a set of feedbacks with each other and with their environment. When such feedbacks are strong enough they can generate alternative stable states. So far, research on alternative stable states has mostly focused on systems with a small number of species and a limited diversity of interaction types. Here, we analyze a spatial model of plant community dynamics in stressed ecosystems such as drylands, where each species is characterized by a strategy, and the different species interact through facilitation and competition for space and resources, such as water. We identify three different types of multistability emerging from the interplay of competition and facilitation. Under low-stress levels, plant communities organize in small groups of coexisting species, maintained by space, competition and facilitation ("cliques"). Under higher stress levels, positive feedback from facilitation lead to the dominance of a single facilitating species ("mutual exclusion states"). At the highest stress levels, the single facilitating species left in the system coexists with the desert state. By linking community ecology and alternative stable states theory using a spatial plant community model for stressed ecosystems, our study contributes to highlight the importance of positive feedback loops for the stability of ecological communities.

Hysteretic and asynchronous regime shifts of bacterial and micro-eukaryotic communities driven by nutrient loading

Nutrient pollution is pervasive in many urban rivers, while restoration measures that reduce nutrient loading but fail to improve biological communities often lack effectiveness due to the indispensable role of biota, especially multi-taxa, in enhancing ecosystem stability and function. The investigation of the response patterns of multi-taxa to the nutrient loading in urban rivers is important for the recovery of biota structure and thus ecosystem function. However, little is known about the response patterns of multi-taxa and their impact on ecosystem structure and function in urban rivers. Here, the study, from the perspective of alternative stable states theory, showed the hysteretic response of both bacterial and micro-eukaryotic communities to nutrient loading based on the field investigation and environmental DNA metabarcoding. Bistability was shown to exist in both bacterial and micro-eukaryotic communities, demonstrating that the response of microbiota to nutrient loading was a regime shifts with hysteresis. Potential analysis then indicated that the increased nutrient loading drove regime shifts in the bacterial community and the micro-eukaryotic community towards a state dominated by anaerobic bacteria and benthic Bacillariophyta, respectively. High nutrient loading was found to reduce the relative abundance of metazoan, but increase that of eukaryotic algae, which made the trophic pyramid top-lighter and bottom-heavier, probably exacerbating the degradation of ecosystem function. It should be noted that, in response to the reduced nutrient loading, the recovery threshold of micro-eukaryotic communities (nutrient loading = ∼0.5) was lower than that of bacterial communities (nutrient loading = ∼1.2), demonstrating longer hysteresis of micro-eukaryotic communities. In addition, the markedly positive correlation between the status of microbial communities and N-related enzyme activities suggested the recovery of microbial communities probably will benefit the improvement of N-cycling functionality. The obtained results provide a deep insight into the collapse and recovery trajectories of multi-trophic microbiota to the nutrient loading gradient and their impact on the N transformation potential, therefore benefiting the restoration and management of urban rivers.

Dam-induced flow alternations drive the regime shift towards a cyanobacteria-dominated microbiota state in the Yangtze River

While satisfying the demands of social and economic development, dams act as physical barriers affecting both abiotic and biotic factors in large rivers. These altered factors can interact with each other and gradually reshape the local ecosystem state. The reshaped state may spread downstream and affect ecosystem states on a large scale. However, the spread extent and characteristics of ecosystem states along large rivers remain understudied. To address this problem, alternative microbiota states and their responses to environmental conditions in the Yangtze River were investigated, considering the preponderance of alternative stable states theory in explaining the response of ecosystem states as well as the role of benthic microorganisms in indicating ecosystem states. In this study, flow discharge was identified as the main hydrological factor that clustered benthic microbiota into two types, and these two microbiota types were bistable and characterized by differential enrichment of the Cyanobacteria phylum. Potential analysis demonstrated that reducing flow discharge beneath a threshold (i.e., flow discharge < 12,900 m3/s) could shift benthic microbiotas to a state where benthic cyanobacteria would become the dominant species (the Microbiota State B). In the bistable region (i.e., 12,900 < flow discharge < 28,000 m3/s), both the ecological resilience and the contribution of deterministic process were found weak by relative potential depth calculations and neutral community modeling, suggesting that this region is susceptible to the microbiota state of its upstream and thus deserves more scientific attention to prevent the unfavorable state from spreading downstream. In addition, high denitrification potential at sites of the Microbiota State B was likely responsible for the low N:P ratio, further benefiting the dominance of N-fixing cyanobacteria. This study empirically showed the response of alternative microbiota states to flow gradients, and explored the distribution and characteristics of the microbiota states along the mainstream of the Yangtze River, therefore providing insights into environmental flow design and reservoir regulation of large rivers.

How nutrient loading leads to alternative stable states in microbially mediated N-cycle pathways: A new insight into bioavailable nitrogen removal in urban rivers

Excessive nutrients have disrupted pathways of microbial-mediated nitrogen (N) cycle in urban rivers and caused bioavailable N to accumulate in sediments, while remedial actions sometimes fail to recover degraded river ecosystems even when environmental quality has been improved. It is not sufficient to revert the ecosystem to its original healthy state by restoring the pre-degradation environmental conditions, as explained by alternative stable states theory. Understanding the recovery of disrupted N-cycle pathways from the perspective of alternative stable states theory can benefit effective river remediation. Previous studies have found alternative microbiota states in rivers; however, the existence and implications of alternative stable states in microbial-mediated N-cycle pathway remain unclear. Here, high-throughput sequencing and N-related enzyme activities measurement were combined in the field investigation to provide empirical evidence for the bi-stability in microbially mediated N-cycle pathways. According to the behavior of bistable ecosystems, the existence of alternative stable states in microbial-mediated N-cycle pathway have been shown, and nutrient loading, mainly total nitrogen and total phosphorus, were identified as key driver of regime shifts. In addition, potential analysis revealed that reducing nutrient loading shifted the N-cycle pathway to a desirable state characterized by high ammonification and nitrification, probably avoiding the accumulation of ammonia and organic N. It should be noted that the improvement of microbiota status can facilitate the recovery of the desirable pathway state according to the relationship between microbiota states and N-cycle pathway states. Keystone species, including Rhizobiales and Sphingomonadales, were discerned by network analysis, and the increase in their relative abundance may facilitate the improvement of microbiota status. The obtained results suggested that the nutrient reduction should be combined with microbiota management to benefit the bioavailable N removal in urban rivers, therefore providing a new insight into alleviating adverse effects of the nutrient loading on urban rivers.

The acceptable range of variation within the desirable stable state as a measure of restoration success

It is standard practice to compare the status of performance indicators between restoration and reference sites to monitor restoration progress and demonstrate restoration success. However, standard methods for defining the reference ecosystem, selecting reference sites, and measuring success are surprisingly lacking. Our study develops these methods based on the acceptable range of variation (ARV) within the desirable stable (reference) state as a measure of restoration success. The method (1) constrains application to the contemporary landscape to avoid the problematic historical range of variation concept and idealized restoration targets; (2) acknowledges the theory of alternative stable states and ecosystem dynamics and posits that the reference ecosystem should be clearly defined as a desirable stable (reference) state; and (3) shows that identifying an acceptable thematic (classification) scale and an acceptable management timeframe is essential to defining the desirable stable (reference) state. We present two approaches to calculating an ARV and a simulation method to explore reference site replication sufficiency. We apply the methods to two contrasting Australian restoration case studies and recommend that routine adoption of these methods would make a significant contribution to the science and practice of restoration ecology and to the assessment of restoration success.

Climatic legacy effects on the drought response of the Amazon rainforest.

Extreme precipitation and drought events are predicted to become more intense and more frequent over the Amazon rainforest. Because changes in forest dynamics could prompt strong feedback loops to the global climate, it is of crucial importance to gain insight into the response of tropical forests to these recurring extreme climatic events. Here, we evaluated the Amazon forest stability (resistance and resilience) to drought in the context of past dry and wet climatic events using MODIS EVI satellite imagery and cumulative water deficit anomalies. We observed large spatial differences in the occurrence of extreme climatic events from 1980 to 2019, with an increase in drought frequency in the central and northern Amazon and drought intensity in the southern Amazon basin. An increasing trend in the occurrence of wet events was found in the western, southern, and eastern Amazon. Furthermore, we found significant legacy effects of previous climatic events on the forest drought response. An extreme drought closely preceding another drought decreased forest resilience, whereas the occurrence of a recent drier-than-usual event also decreased the forest resistance to later droughts. Both wetter-than-usual and extreme wet events preceding an extreme drought increased the resistance of the forest, and with similar effects sizes as dry events, indicating that wet and dry events have similarly sized legacy effects on the drought response of tropical forests. Our results indicate that the predicted increase in drought frequency and intensity can have negative consequences for the functioning of the Amazon forest. However, more frequent wet periods in combination with these droughts could counteract their negative impact. Finally, we also found that more stable forests according to the alternative stable states theory are also more resistant and resilient to individual droughts, showing a positive relationship between the equilibrium and non-equilibrium stability dynamics.

Discussion on the scientific concepts of regional resources and environmental carrying capacity and its ecological basis.

The carrying capacity of resources and environment is an essential concept in ecology, the theoretical and practical research of which has become an important basis for measuring regional sustainable development. However, the scientific connection between the ecological foundation and the carrying capacity of resources and environment is still unclear. Moreover, it remains unknown which ecological theories played a supporting role in the development of the resources and environment carrying capacity, which makes the scientific concept of carrying capacity very vague. Based on the discussion of the scientific concepts and development of the carrying capacity of resources and environmen, we systematically discussed the basic concepts, such as the niche volume that organisms can occupy, the ecological threshold of ecosystems to withstand environmental stress, the potential resource capacity (supply capacity) of sustainable supply such as climate, water and nutrition, and the environmental capacity of buffering and purifying pollutants. Furthermore, from the biophysical point perspective of foundation pressure bearing capacity, spatial capacity carrying capacity and ecological threshold carrying capacity, the scientific concepts of Natural Resources Supply Carrying Capacity (NRSCC), Nature Environment Carrying Capacity (NECC), Carrying Capacity of Biological Population Development (CCBPD), Carrying Capacity of Social and Economic Development (CCSED) and Carrying Capacity of Environmental Stress in Ecosystems (CCESE) were defined. Finally, three basic issues of ecology were discussed in detail, including the theory of population growth and the ecological capacity of the ecosystem, the theory of ecosystem multi-functionality and resource and environmental effects, and the theory of alternative stable states, self-adaptability, and self-organization. Based on exploring the theory and method of regional resource environmental assessment, this study would provide theoretical basis for regional resource environment utilization, protection and social and economic sustainable development.

Identifying critical transitions in seasonal shifts of zooplankton composition in a confined coastal salt marsh

Zooplankton assemblages in the confined coastal lagoons of La Pletera salt marshes (Baix Ter wetlands, Girona, Spain) are dominated by two species: one calanoid copepod (Eurytemora velox) and the other rotifer (Brachionus gr. plicatilis). They alternate as the dominant species (more than 80% of total zooplankton biomass), with the former being dominant in winter and the latter in summer. Shifts between these taxa are sudden, and intermediate situations usually do not last more than 1 month. Although seasonal shifts between zooplankton dominant species appear to be related with temperature, other factors such as trophic state or oxygen concentration may also play an important role. Shifts between species dominances may be driven by thresholds in these environmental variables. However, according to the alternative stable states theory, under conditions of stable dominance a certain resistance to change may exist, causing that gradual changes might have little effect until a tipping point is reached, at which the reverse change becomes much more difficult. We investigated which are the possible factors causing seasonal zooplankton shifts. We used high-frequency temperature and oxygen data provided by sensors installed in situ to analyse if shifts in zooplankton composition are determined by a threshold in these variables or, on the other hand, some gradual change between stable states occur. Moreover, following the postulates of the alternative stable states theory, we looked at possible hysteresis to analyse if these seasonal zooplankton shifts behave as critical transitions between two different equilibriums. We also examined if top-down or bottom-up trophic interactions affect these zooplankton shifts. Our results show that shifts between dominant zooplankton species in La Pletera salt marshes are asymmetric. The shift to a Eurytemora situation is mainly driven by a decrease in temperature, with a threshold close to 19 °C of daily average temperature, while the shift to Brachionus does not. Usually, the decrease in water temperature is accompanied by a decrease in oxygen oscillation with values always close to 100% oxygen saturation. Moreover, oxygen and temperature values before the shift to calanoids are different from those before the reverse shift to Brachionus, suggesting hysteresis and some resistance to change when a critical transition is approaching. Top-down and bottom-up forces appear to have no significant effect on shifts, since zooplankton biomass was not negatively correlated with fish biomass and was not positively related with chlorophyll, in overall data or within shifts.

Dune bistability identified by remote sensing in a semi-arid dune field of northern China

Sand dunes could have bistable states based on the observation that bare dunes and vegetation-stabilized dunes can coexist in the same area under the same environmental conditions. So far, more quantitative evidence on such an interesting phenomenon has remained elusive. In this study, the vegetation coverage and spatial distribution of dunes in the semi-arid Mu Us dune field, north-central China, were investigated by different remote sensing indices derived from the Landsat images using the Google Earth Engine platform, and the results were verified using the aerial images. Frequency distribution of vegetation coverage in many sub-regions (5 km × 5 km) across the dune field clearly shows two dominant peaks, one around 5% and the other around 40%, representing active and stabilized dune states, respectively. The boundaries between the patches of these two states are sharp, and have hardly shifted during the last twenty years. Such coexistence of bistable states is mostly distributed across a precipitation gradient from 200 to 400 mm in the study area. The relative portion of active dunes in total is reduced with increasing precipitation, while the dominant peaks of vegetation coverage for two dune states remain largely unchanged. All these lines of evidence are in accordance with the theory of alternative stable states and model predictions. Because the reversal would be difficult once the dunes shifted into an undesired state from the standpoint of environmental management, detecting and monitoring these transitions, which are often abrupt, is important for better process-based understanding of the mechanisms involved and anticipating future transitions.

How environmental stress leads to alternative microbiota states in a river ecosystem: A new insight into river restoration

Catastrophic shifts in river ecosystems can abruptly degrade their structures and functions, often reducing the efficacy of traditional remediation targeting physicochemical properties. Alternative stable states theory can not only explain this phenomenon but also provide a new insight into river restoration; however, little is known about the existence and implications of alternative stable states in a river. Considering the important role of benthic microbiota in sustaining river ecosystem structures and functions, ecological theory and high-throughput sequencing were combined to firstly investigate multi-stability in microbial communities and its relationship with environmental factors in river sediments. The Nanjing reach of the Yangtze River was selected as the study area because of its huge spatial heterogeneity and varying degrees of pollution. Bimodal distributions combined with temporal variations of microbiota status provided direct evidence of bistability by showing the instability at the intermediate. In addition, environmental stress, particularly concentrations of NH4+−N and NO3−−N, was identified as an important driver of alternative microbiota states from the perspectives of the behavior of bistable ecosystems. Comparison of α-diversity indices and network properties between two alternative microbiota states revealed that the diversity and co-occurrence pattern of microbial communities will be high if they are settled in favorable environments (i.e., comprehensive sediment quality identification index > 3.7). Key taxa, including Clostridiales, Nitrospirales and Myxococcales, were discerned by combining LEfSe and network analysis, and their strong interspecies interactions were believed to be an important factor in triggering alternative microbiota states. This study suggests alternative stable states theory should be considered in river remediation to better understand the response of river ecosystems to environmental stress and the effect of hysteresis, benefiting the implementation of effective monitoring and restoration strategies in a river of urban area.

Alternative biome states of African terrestrial vegetation and the potential drivers: A continental-scale study

The alternative stable state (ASS) theory provides a plausible framework to explain the spatial distribution of biomes and their dynamics. Existing studies to test the alternative biome states (ABSs) mainly focused on tree-dominated biomes. It is still uncertain whether ABSs are present in a wide range of terrestrial biomes. This study was to examine the ABSs in the terrestrial vegetated areas of Africa and the maintaining factors. The potential landscapes were reconstructed separately for forest, grassland and shrubland using the MODIS Vegetation Continuous Field data along the gradients of temperature, precipitation and aridity index (AI, the ratio of precipitation to potential evapotranspiration). The differences of soil organic carbon density (SOCD), fire count and grazing intensity were compared to test the feedback hypothesis to maintain the ABSs. The results showed that AI performed well in detecting the ABSs at the continental scale of Africa. Forest (at the wetter end) and shrubland (at the drier end) were well separated along the AI axis. Forest had three stable states (i.e. closed forest, woody savanna, and savanna) and shrubland had two stable states (i.e. closed shrubland and open shrubland). Grassland had two stable states (i.e. dense grassland and sparse grassland) distributing in a large AI range. The stable states that shared a specific AI range were regarded as the ABSs. Climate aridity greatly determined the distribution of the ABSs but the positive feedbacks between vegetation and SOCD, fire count, and livestock density played potential roles in driving the shifts between the ABSs. Our study indicated that the ABSs commonly existed in varied biomes (both tree-dominated and non-tree-dominated) in the African continent, which provided an enlarged picture of the ABSs of the terrestrial biomes. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of large scale vegetation patterns and their dynamics and facilitate to macro management of the terrestrial ecosystems in facing the possible regime shifts of the biomes.

Soil Seed Banks, Alternative Stable State Theory, and Ecosystem Resilience

Abstract In restoration ecology, the transition from desired to degraded state is based solely on the composition of the aboveground plant community, whereas belowground propagules are often neglected. We developed a conceptual framework integrating seed bank dynamics into alternative stable state theory, highlighting the important relationship between aboveground and belowground composition. This integration emphasizes the role of resilience in systems that appear to have shifted to an “undesirable” state. Belowground propagules, especially soil seed and bud banks, provide buffering capacity and may serve as valuable indicators of potential resistance to state transition based on the degree of similarity between belowground and aboveground vegetation composition. Ecosystem states may have multiple components that differ in their rate of change, as well as in their capacity to promote resilience. We recommend that the application of alternative stable state theory from a management perspective should incorporate components of both above- and belowground vegetation.

Tracking unstable states: ecosystem dynamics in a changing world

Ecological systems can show complex and sometimes abrupt responses to environmental change, with important implications for their resilience. Theories of alternate stable states have been used to predict regime shifts of ecosystems as equilibrium responses to sufficiently slow environmental change. The actual rate of environmental change is a key factor affecting the response, yet we are still lacking a non‐equilibrium theory that explicitly considers the influence of this rate of environmental change. We present a metacommunity model of predator–prey interactions displaying multiple stable states, and we impose an explicit rate of environmental change in habitat quality (carrying capacity) and connectivity (dispersal rate). We study how regime shifts depend on the rate of environmental change and compare the outcome with a stability analysis in the corresponding constant environment. Our results reveal that in a changing environment, the community can track states that are unstable in the constant environment. This tracking can lead to regime shifts, including local extinctions, that are not predicted by alternative stable state theory. In our metacommunity, tracking unstable states also controls the maintenance of spatial heterogeneity and spatial synchrony. Tracking unstable states can also lead to regime shifts that may be reversible or irreversible. Our study extends current regime shift theories to integrate rate‐dependent responses to environmental change. It reveals the key role of unstable states for predicting transient dynamics and long‐term resilience of ecological systems to climate change.

A Matter of Life and Death: Alternative Stable States in Trees, From Xylem to Ecosystems

Global forests are experiencing widespread climate-induced mortality. Predicting this phenomenon has proven difficult, despite recent advances in understanding physiological mechanisms of mortality in individual trees along with environmental drivers of mortality at broad scales. With heat and drought as primary climatic drivers, and convergence on hydraulic failure as a primary physiological mechanism, new models are needed to improve our predictions of Earth’s forests under future climate conditions. While much of ecology focuses on equilibrium states, transitions from one stable state to another are often described with alternative stable state theory (ASST), where systems can settle to more than one stable condition. Recent studies have identified threshold responses of hydraulic failure during tree mortality, indicating that alternative stable states may be present. Here, I demonstrate that the xylem of trees has characteristics indicative of alternative stable states. Through empirical evidence, I identify a catastrophic shift during hydraulic failure which prevents trees from returning to pre-droughted physiological states after environmental stressors (e.g., drought, heat) are relieved. Thus, the legacy of climate-induced hydraulic failure likely contributes to reduced resilience of forests under future climate. I discuss the implications and future directions for including ASST in models of tree mortality.

Connectivity and complexity of coastal lakes as determinants for their restoration – A case study of the southern Baltic Sea

To understand functional mechanisms and ecological conditions of the Baltic coastal lakes (BCL) for the need of their restoration, the current state of knowledge on environmental, ecological, and evolutionary processes responsible for biological diversity is presented. This has allowed the classification of coastal lakes along the southern Baltic Sea coast as freshwater, transitional, and brackish ones. Principles of their functioning are explained here on the basis of the theory of alternative stable states in shallow lake ecosystems (brackish vs. freshwater) separated by adaptive cycles (transitional lakes).Successful concepts for the design and application of restoration of degraded coastal aquatic ecosystems is conditioned by both marine and terrestrial factors. Thus, the restoration plans of the southern Baltic coastal lakes, contrary to freshwater inland lakes, require some specific criteria to be applied due to (i) various connectivity of lakes with the sea, (ii) intrusion of seawater of low salinity as well as (iii) genetic heterogeneity of lake basins. Awareness of these findings makes it possible to trace and predict the threats posed to coastal lakes, as well. As an example, recommendations on the holistic restoration of Lake Jamno are presented. The presented data is useful for determining the state of preservation and methods of management of coastal aquatic habitats under high human pressure.

Recovery of a Tidal Freshwater Embayment from Eutrophication: a Multidecadal Study

Effective management of eutrophication in tidal ecosystems requires a thorough understanding of the dynamics of their responses to decreases in nutrient loading. We analyze a 34-year dataset on a shallow embayment of the tidal freshwater Potomac River, Gunston Cove, for long-term responses of ambient nutrient levels, light transparency measures, phytoplankton biomass, and coverage of submersed aquatic vegetation (SAV) to decreased nutrient loading. Point source loading of phosphorus, the nutrient most limiting primary production in this system, was greatly curtailed coincident with the study onset (1983/84) exhibiting a sharp decrease of 95% from peak loading levels. However, water column total phosphorus decreased much more slowly and gradually. Phytoplankton chlorophyll a did not show a distinctive decrease until 2000 and SAV responded strongly beginning in 2004. The habitat suitability model for SAV developed by Chesapeake Bay researchers was able to explain the recovery of SAV coverage based on data on light transparency and basin morphometry collected in this study. The study results were consistent with the alternative stable state theory with a sharp transition from a phytoplankton-dominated “turbid water” state to an SAV-dominated “clear water” state in a 2-year period from 2003 to 2005. The system eventually responded to nutrient load reductions, but the nonlinear and incomplete nature of this recovery and the two-decade delay illustrate the complexities of managing these systems.

Alternative Biome States in Terrestrial Ecosystems.

There is growing interest in the application of alternative stable state (ASS) theory to explain major vegetation patterns of the world. Here, we introduce the theory as applied to the puzzle of nonforested (open) biomes growing in climates that are warm and wet enough to support forests (alternative biome states, ABSs). Long thought to be the product of deforestation, diverse lines of evidence indicate that many open ecosystems are ancient. They have also been characterized as 'early successional' even where they persist for millennia. ABS is an alternative framework to that of climate determinism and succession for exploring forest/nonforest mosaics. This framework explains not only tropical forest-savanna landscapes, but also other landscape mosaics across the globe.

Seed banks trigger ecological resilience in subalpine meadows abandoned after arable farming on the Tibetan Plateau.

Although long-term agricultural activity frequently decreases biodiversity, it remains unclear whether such biodiversity losses are readily reversible. There is no doubt that the important ecological function of seed bank is ecological memory, but few researchers have explored the role of seed banks in grassland ecosystem resilience and threshold theory. We used a space-for-time subrogation method, i.e., a natural meadow (never farmed but used for moderate gazing) and meadows farmed for 30yr and then abandoned for 1, 10, and 20yr, to determine if the biodiversity/ecosystem of subalpine meadows could be reversed to the natural vegetation state and to investigate the role of soil seed banks in grassland ecosystem restoration and resilience. After 20yr of natural regeneration, aboveground vegetation composition and properties had recovered to the natural meadow state, suggesting that critical thresholds were not crossed. Seed bank composition and structure exhibited almost no change after agricultural disturbance for decades. The persistent seed bank had the highest contribution to vegetation regeneration in the 1-yr abandoned field, which had the highest seed density. Similarity between the seed bank and aboveground vegetation and seed density decreased with years since abandonment. Since the seed bank still reflected the desired state, the system had inherent resilience and had not have crossed the transition threshold. Thus, high-diversity persistent seed banks are an important indicator of high resilience of this ecosystem. High similarity between the seed bank and vegetation in early-abandoned fields may indicate that ecological resilience is triggered and be a warning signal that interventions are needed to avoid a state transition. In applying alternative stable state theory to ecological restoration, much attention should be given to the soil seed bank.

Stoichiometric mechanisms of regime shifts in freshwater ecosystem

Catastrophic regime shifts in shallow lakes are hard to predict due to a lack of clear understanding of the associate mechanisms. Theory of alternative stable states suggests that eutrophication has profound negative effects on the structure, function and stability of freshwater ecosystems. However, it is still unclear how eutrophication destabilizes ecosystems stoichiometrically before a tipping point is reached. The stoichiometric homeostasis (H), which links fine-scale process to broad-scale patterns, is a key parameter in ecological stoichiometry. Based on investigation of 97 shallow lakes on the Yangtze Plain, China, we measured nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentrations of the aboveground tissues of common submerged macrophyte species and their corresponding sediments. We found submerged macrophytes showed significant stoichiometric homeostasis for P (HP) but not for N (HN). Furthermore, HP was positively correlated with dominance and stability at the species level, and community production and stability at the community level. Identifying where macrophyte community collapse is a fundamental way to quantify their resilience. Threshold detection showed that macrophyte community dominated by high-HP species had a higher value of tipping point (0.08 vs. 0.06 mg P L−1 in lake water), indicating their strong resilience to eutrophication. In addition, macrophytes with high HP were predominant in relative oligotrophic sediments and have higher ability in stabilizing the water environment compared to those low-HP ones. Our results suggested that ecosystem dominated by homeostatic macrophyte communities was more productive, stable and resilient to eutrophication. Eutrophication-induced stoichiometric imbalance may destabilize the ecosystem by altering the community structure from high-to low-HP species. Efforts should be focused on maintaining and restoration of high homeostatic communities to make ecosystem more resilient, which can significantly improve our understanding of the critical transition mechanisms.

Evidence that shrublands and hummock grasslands are fire-mediated alternative stable states in the Australian Gibson Desert

Alternative stable state theory predicts that different disturbance regimes may support contrasting ecosystem states under otherwise analogous environmental conditions. In fire-prone systems, this theory is often invoked to explain abrupt ecotones, especially when adjacent vegetation types have contrasting flammabilities and differing tolerances to pyric perturbation. Despite being well-documented in forest-savanna transitions, unambiguous examples of fire-driven alternate stable states (FDASS) in arid systems are rare. The current study examined whether flammable spinifex (Triodia spp.) grasslands and fire-sensitive waputi (Aluta maisonneuvei subsp. maisonneuvei) shrublands in Australia's Gibson Desert represent FDASS. Specifically, analyses of soil and topographic variables assessed whether environmental differences explain habitat zonation. To determine whether different flammabilities of Aluta and Triodia systems may perpetuate alternative states via vegetation-fire feedback processes, community-level fuelloads were quantified to provide an indirect measure of flammability. To determine the propensity for fire to trigger 'state-shifting', community responses to a single high-severity fire were evaluated. Habitat segregation did not relate to between-site environmental differences, and the fuel-load study indicated that the more pyrophytic community (Triodia grassland) is more flammable, and hence more likely to experience higher frequency fire-cycles. Fire was identified as a potential vector of 'state-change', because although both systems regenerated well after fire, Triodia reproduced more prolifically at a younger age than Aluta, and hence should tolerate shorter fire-return intervals. In the absence of between-community topographic and edaphic differences, or herbivores that consume either plant, it is likely that Aluta shrublands and Triodia grasslands represent fire-mediated alternative equilibrium states.