Alternative Fuels Research Articles

Nickel and cobalt incorporated mesoporous HZSM-5 catalysts for biofuel production from bio-oil model compounds

Bio-oil obtained through the gasification or pyrolysis of biomass is a renewable energy source with the potential to be used in motor vehicles. However, when the properties of bio-oil are compared to crude oil, bio-oil is observed to have high oxygen content and acidity. The aim of this study is to enhance the physical properties of bio-oil and produce new alternative fuels to crude oil. For this purpose, nickel and cobalt-incorporated mesoporous HZSM-5 catalysts have been synthesized. The synthesized catalysts were characterized by X-ray diffraction, N2 adsorption–desorption, Scanning electron microscopy energy dispersive spectroscopy, Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric/differential thermal analysis. In the study, formic acid, furfural, and hydroxypropanone were used as model components. To enhance catalyst activity, nickel was loaded onto the HZSM-5 catalyst. However, during biofuel production, a significant amount of coke was formed as a by-product. Therefore, cobalt was impregnated to reduce coke formation. In the activity test studies, a conversion in the range of 77–84% was achieved with HZSM-5 catalysts. Nickel addition increased the paraffin and olefin content in the biofuel along with bio-oil conversion. The maximum paraffin selectivity (97%) was provided with the 5Ni@HZSM-5 catalyst. However, the highest biofuel selectivity (77.5%) with the minimum coke formation (4%) was observed with the 5Co-5Ni@HZSM-5. In the study, the regeneration and long-term catalytic activity were also investigated, and the results showed that 5Co-5Ni@HZSM is an attractive catalyst for biofuel production from bio-oil.

A Review of Grease Trap Waste Management in the US and the Upcycle as Feedstocks for Alternative Diesel Fuels

As byproducts generated by commercial and domestic food-related processes, FOGs (fats, oils, and grease) are the leading cause of sewer pipe blockages in the US and around the world. Grease trap waste (GTW) is a subcategory of FOG currently disposed of as waste, resulting in an economic burden for GTW generators and handlers. This presents a global need for both resource conservation and carbon footprint reduction, particularly through increased waste upcycling. Therefore, it is critical to better understand current GTW handling practices in the context of the urban food–energy–water cycle. This can be accomplished with firsthand data collection, such as onsite visits, phone discussions, and targeted questionnaires. GTW disposal methods were found to be regional and correspond to key geographical locations, with landfill operations mostly practiced in the Midwest regions, incineration mainly in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions, and digestion mainly in the West of the US. Select GTW samples were analyzed to evaluate their potential reuse as low-cost feedstocks for biodiesel or renewable diesel, which are alternatives to petroleum diesel fuels. Various GTW lipid extraction technologies have been reviewed, and more studies were found on converting GTW into biodiesel rather than renewable diesel. The challenges for these two pathways are the high sulfur content in biodiesel and the metal contents in renewable diesel, respectively. GTW lipid extraction technologies should overcome these issues while producing minimum-viable products with higher market values.

Advanced Fungal Biotechnologies in Accomplishing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): What Do We Know and What Comes Next?

The present era has witnessed an unprecedented scenario with extreme climate changes, depleting natural resources and rising global food demands and its widespread societal impact. From providing bio-based resources to fulfilling socio-economic necessities, tackling environmental challenges, and ecosystem restoration, microbes exist as integral members of the ecosystem and influence human lives. Microbes demonstrate remarkable potential to adapt and thrive in climatic variations and extreme niches and promote environmental sustainability. It is important to mention that advances in fungal biotechnologies have opened new avenues and significantly contributed to improving human lives through addressing socio-economic challenges. Microbe-based sustainable innovations would likely contribute to the United Nations sustainable development goals (SDGs) by providing affordable energy (use of agro-industrial waste by microbial conversions), reducing economic burdens/affordable living conditions (new opportunities by the creation of bio-based industries for a sustainable living), tackling climatic changes (use of sustainable alternative fuels for reducing carbon footprints), conserving marine life (production of microbe-based bioplastics for safer marine life) and poverty reduction (microbial products), among other microbe-mediated approaches. The article highlights the emerging trends and future directions into how fungal biotechnologies can provide feasible and sustainable solutions to achieve SDGs and address global issues.

Evaluation of ethanol-gasoline blends in SI engines using experimental and ANN techniques

Fuel combustion has become a major global concern, with much research focusing on the various emissions resulting from different types of fuels. Due to the harmful pollutant emissions from fossil fuels, the world has turned to renewable and alternative fuels to limit toxic emissions and greenhouse effects. Ethanol is a biofuel that, when used in spark ignition engines with gasoline can improve the octane number, combustion efficiency, and produce less emissions. The current research studies the effect of different ethanol blends E0, E5, E10, and E15 with gasoline 92 on engine performance parameters and emissions of a GX35 four-stroke engine at different engine speeds. The results along the speed range reveal that increasing ethanol amount leads to an average increase of 2.7%, 1%, and 1.1% in brake power (BP), brake thermal efficiency (BTE), and CO2 emissions, respectively. Meanwhile, it causes an average decrease of 28 °C, 3%, 15 ppm, and 0.18% in exhaust gas temperature (EGT), brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC), HC, and CO emissions respectively. Moreover, the current study develops an Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) model for predicting the performance and emissions of spark ignition (SI) engines. Python programming language is used for ANN coding to train and validate the ANN model with E15. Regression plots were generated to visualize the correlation between the target and predicted data, indicating outstanding performance. The results confirmed the model’s reliability for BP, EGT, CO, CO2, and HC parameters with R2 values more than 0.99 and with acceptable performance for BSFC and BTE with R2 of 0.9339, and 0.9708, respectively. To ensure that the is no overfitting during the ANN study, we used different statistical methods, such as validation set, cross-validation, and learning curves.

Analyzing the influence of feedstock selection in pyrolysis on aviation gas turbine engines: A study on performance, combustion efficiency, and emission profiles

Commercial aviation is primarily reliant on fossil fuels, yet the depletion of these sources and the consequences of climate change necessitates the exploration of sustainable alternatives. The pyrolysis process offers a viable method for producing biofuels from various feedstocks. This research examines the combustion, emission, and performance characteristics of biofuels derived from agricultural residues, waste tyres, and plastics using pyrolysis. Pyrolysis oils derived from forestry or agricultural products exhibit high viscosity and moisture content, which impairs combustion efficiency and increases carbon monoxide (CO) from 70 % to 187 % and unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) emissions. Conversely, pyrolysis oils from plastics and waste tyres provide stable combustion with carbon monoxide and total hydrocarbon emissions (THC) comparable to those of commercial jet fuel. However, nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions are significantly elevated from 57 % to 157 %. Engine performance tests demonstrated that forestry pyrolysis oils result in thrust loss due to their high viscosity value (14.3–113 mm2/s) and low calorific value (17.3–31.7 MJ/kg). In contrast, plastic and tyre pyrolysis oil perform similarly to commercial jet fuels but may potentially cause performance loss due to their high aromatic content (>47.67 %). Overall, upgrading the viscosity, moisture, and aromatic content of pyrolysis oils can enhance their suitability as alternative aviation fuels. These improvements could assist the aviation sector in achieving its carbon-neutral goals by making pyrolysis oils competitive with conventional jet fuels.

Biomass Moving Bed Combustion Analysis via Two-Way Coupling of Solid–Fluid Interactions Using Discrete Element Method and Computational Fluid Dynamics Method

Nowadays, almost all countries in the world are intensifying their search for locally available energy sources to become independent of external supplies. The production of alternative fuels from biomass and waste by thermal treatment or direct use in the combustion process is still the simplest method for fast and cheap heat production. However, the different characteristics of these fuels can cause problems in the operation of the plants, resulting in increased air pollution. Therefore, the analysis of the thermal treatment of solid fuels is still an important issue from a practical point of view. This work aimed to study biomass combustion in a small-scale reactor using the in-house Extended DEM (XDEM) method based on mixed Lagrangian–Eulerian approaches. This was provided by a novel, independently developed coupling computational interface. This interface allows for a seamless integration between CFD and DEM, improving computational efficiency and accuracy. In addition, significant advances have been made in the underlying physical models. Within the DEM framework, each particle undergoes the thermochemical processes, allowing for the prediction of its shape and structural changes during heating. Together, these changes contribute to a more robust and reliable simulation tool capable of providing detailed insights into complex multi-phase flows and granular material behavior. Numerical results were obtained for a non-typical geometry to check the influence of the walls on the distribution of the parameters in the reactor. The results show that XDEM is a very good tool for predicting the phenomena during the thermal treatment of solid fuels. In particular, it provides information about all the moving particles undergoing chemical reactions, which is very difficult to obtain from measurements.

Box-Behnken design optimizing operating conditions in bio-hydrogenated diesel production by using BHD product as a solvent

The development of alternative liquid fuels, such as bio-hydrogenated diesel (BHD), is becoming increasingly important to reduce fossil fuel consumption. In addition, BHD components (such as hexadecane) can be used as a solvent to simplify product separation for the first time. This paper demonstrated the influence of several parameters—temperature (250, 200, 350 ◦C), pressure (10, 20, 30 bar), and reactant-to-solvent ratio (1:0, 1:0.5, 1:1)—for BHD production using palmitic acid as the reactant and hexadecane as the solvent with a nickel-on-zirconia catalyst. Response surface methodology was used to determine the optimum conditions for responses (palmitic acid conversion, BHD selectivity, and yield). A set of experiments was established based on a Box-Behnken designs. The results showed that the most significant parameter for palmitic acid conversion and BHD yield was temperature, especially when higher than 300 ◦C, where the BHD yield increased from 45 % to 80 %. Overall, the optimum operating conditions were 350 ◦C, 17 bar, and a reactant-to-solvent ratio of 1:0.77, revealing the potential for further use of BHD products as solvent. Deoxygenation of palm fatty acid with hexadecane as solvent found highest conversion of 82.7 % and BHD selectivity of 84.38 % at reaction time 4 h.

Implementation of the District Heating Delignification Project in Western Macedonia, Greece: A Comparative Analysis of the Alternative Solutions

The main goal of this article is to give an overview of the importance of district heating and specifically emphasize its continued use with alternative fuels in the upcoming post-lignite era. The results of the cost–benefit analysis for district heating in the transition period after show promise and positivity. By examining key aspects undergoing changes and conducting a SWOT analysis related to this shift, this study sheds light on various benefits for the economy, society, and the environment in sustaining district heating post-lignite era. Additionally, it introduces a solution tailored to meet all district heating needs in Western Macedonia, Greece, during both the transitional phase and after phasing out existing lignite units as, per Greek National Energy and Climate Plan requirements. This devised solution ensures comprehensive coverage of all district heating demands.

Possibilities of decontaminating organic waste from swine-farming complexes using anaerobic digestion

AbstractAnaerobic digestion with simultaneous production of biogas is one of the most common methods of recycling, processing and decontamination of organic waste to produce alternative fuels. A commonly used indicator of the sanitary safety of the substrate is eggs of Ascaris suum nematodes of pigs, which are characterised by extremely high resistance to environmental factors. The aim is to investigate the effect of the mesophilic mode of anaerobic digestion on the activity of pathogens, particularly Ascaris suum eggs. The eggs of the studied nematode species were placed in a biogas installation at a temperature of 37 °C. The digestate samples with eggs were then taken every 4 days for 28 days, followed by larvae culture to determine the viability of the eggs. The results of our research have shown that the mesophilic regime of anaerobic digestion is an effective method of controlling parasites, but at the same time, it needs to be improved, since only 7.6% of A. suum eggs remained alive after a 1-day stay, about 50% after the week stay and about 9% in the third week stay in the biogas reactor. Thus, further optimisation of anaerobic fermentation in the mesophilic mode can be aimed at improving the suppression of pathogenic activity.

Study on the integration of hydrogen in a multi-cylinder low heat rejection diesel engine using a ternary blend

Among alternative fuels, hydrogen (H2) holds significant promise as both a fuel and an energy carrier. It is expected to become a key alternative fuel in the near future to meet stringent pollution standards. H2 is used in internal combustion (IC) engines, gas turbines, and the aerospace industry due to its non-toxic and odorless nature, high calorific value (CV), and wide temperature range of combustibility. Additionally, it is a long-term renewable energy source that produces fewer pollutants. This study explores the impact of different H2 ratios on combustion behavior, engine performance, and emission characteristics in a dual-fuel compression ignition (CI) diesel engine. The current research focuses on the effect of TB of ethanol, Jatropha methyl ester, and diesel with the induction of H2 with different flow rates in diesel engine in dual fuel mode (DFM). The tests were performed at different engine loads, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% at a constant engine speed of 2500 rpm. H2 is inducted at different flow rates like 2, 4, and 6 Litres per minute (lpm). Partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) is used to coat the cylinder head, piston crown, and valves with a thickness of 0.5 mm. The combined effect of TB fuel and H2 in a CI engine improves combustion and engine performance. At full load condition, brake thermal efficiency (BTE) is improved by 11.5% for TB fuel with H2 at 6 lpm, and exhaust gas temperature (EGT) increased by 12.7%. The cylinder pressure (CP) and heat release rate (HRR) are increased by 7.5% and 10.6% at TB fuel with 6 lpm of H2 induction. The utilization of H2 as an alternative energy source has significant consequences for the future of green energy production.

Comparative life cycle assessment of various hydrogen supply methods from Australia to the Republic of Korea in environmental and economic aspects

With the increasing importance of decarbonization to prevent global climate change, hydrogen supply has received considerable attention from several countries, including Korea and Japan, due to the growing demand for the implementation of a hydrogen economy. This study conducted a comprehensive analysis on hydrogen supply methods from Australia to the Republic of Korea in environmental and economic aspects using a life cycle assessment (LCA). The blue hydrogen produced in Australia was considered for import to the Republic of Korea via ocean shipping. The study analyzed the holistic environmental effects in the life cycle of hydrogen ocean transport for various types of hydrogen storage methods (CH2, LH2, LOHC, LNH3, and LNG), as well as alternative marine fuels (MGO, LNG, LPG, CH2, LH2, LNG-LH2, MeOH, and LNH3) for ship transportation. Environmental impact performance was presented in terms of global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP), photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP), eutrophication potential (EP), and particulate matter (PM). For the environmental results, sensitivity studies were conducted to analyze the effects of operating distance and cargo tank size when shipping hydrogen via ocean transport. Additionally, the GWP results of the transportation of green hydrogen and ammonia were compared with those of blue hydrogen and ammonia transport. A cost analysis was performed for the overall processes of hydrogen ocean transport, and the results were included in the study with the estimated hydrogen price for each transportation method.

Quantitative impact of decarbonization options on air pollutants from different ship types

Shipping emits Greenhouse Gases (GHG), contributing to climate change and various air pollutants, posing risks on human health. To address GHG, maritime has responded with increasingly stringent legislations, including recent commitments to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050. Substantial investments have been made in cutting-edge technologies, alternative fuels and operational strategies ensuring emissions regulations compliance. This paper aims to quantitatively evaluate the emission performance of diverse decarbonization options, focusing on assessing their potential to mitigate GHG and addressing air pollutants. Our analysis utilizes a new set of load-dependent Emission Factors and employs Automatic Identification System data for 5 ship classes. While operational measures moderately reduce emissions, fuel shift to alternatives and on-board carbon capture and storage offer a more promising pathway towards decarbonization and air pollutants reduction. The outcomes intend to provide insights into the effectiveness of measures in reducing external costs, while serving as a valuable resource for regulatory authorities.

Towards sustainable automobile ecosystem in India: Integrated analysis of technical, economic, and ESG dimensions

Global environmental concerns are leading to paradigm shift in the automobile eco-system. This comprehensive study of the automobile ecosystem, incorporates technical, economic, and environmental-social-governance (ESG) dimensions. An “integrated multi-criteria decision-making” (MCDM) methodology using “interpretive structural modelling” (ISM) and “fuzzy analytical hierarchy process” (FAHP) is deployed, The ISM models highlights prominent drivers and critical barriers, establishes their hierarchy, and depicts interrelationships. The FAHP rankings for drivers favours electric vehicles and hydrogen fuel vehicles over others, while barriers promote hybrids and alternate fuels like Biofuel, CNG/LNG. Unlike previous works, this study considers all eco-system factors, both critical drivers and barriers, and demonstrates hierarchy using a unique V-model. This is an innovative extension of V-model from traditional systems engineering to strategic project management domain. This holistic approach, in sync with the natural state of things, will enable government, industry, and academia in formulating a strategic framework towards future automobile sustainability.

A novel hybrid enhanced oil recovery technique to enhance oil production from oil-wet carbonate reservoirs by combining electrical heating with nanofluid flooding

Enhanced Oil Recovery provides a promising technique to maximise fossil fuel recovery from existing resources, and when used in conjunction with Carbon Capture and Storage/Utilisation provides a way to support a transition to alternative cleaner fuels. A hybrid Enhanced Oil Recovery method by a combination of electrical heating and nanofluid flooding was applied to oil-wet carbonate reservoirs and assessed in terms of the oil production, zeta potential, contact angle, pellet compaction, interfacial tension, and pH values. The hybrid technique consisted of a combination of direct current (up to 30 V) and iron oxide (Fe2O3) or magnesium oxide (MgO) nanofluids. Both nanofluids were injected into oil-wet Austin chalk – our laboratory model of an oil-wet carbonate reservoir – and then electrical heating was started, or vice versa. Introducing electrical heating first increased oil recovery by up to 27% in seawater compared to 16% in deionised water. When Fe2O3 nanofluid was injected, oil recovery further increased to 32% in seawater and 24% in deionised water. The contact angle and zeta potential decreased from 124° to 36° and from −24.4 to −23.7 mV, respectively, when nanofluid was injected in seawater, leading to better nanofluid stability and penetration into the carbonate rock as shown by increased pellet porosity from 6.6% to 14.8%. Moreover, it was found that the interfacial tension was reduced from 72 to 32.7 mN/m in the pre-magnetised samples with Fe2O3 NPs injection compared to 33.2 mN/m in the samples with MgO injection. It was found from our experiments that the effect of the generated electricity on the surface charge was of a temporary nature as the zeta potential of the rock returned to its original value as soon as the power was disconnected. The mechanism underlying the hybrid Enhanced Oil Recovery EOR technique from the laboratory findings was found to be based on electrowetting and nanofluid adsorption. Results indicate that the technique is promising for further improving oil recovery and securing energy supply during the transition to net zero.

Assessing Particulate Emissions of Novel Synthetic Fuels and Fossil Fuels under Different Operating Conditions of a Marine Engine and the Impact of a Closed-Loop Scrubber

Particle emissions from marine activities next to gaseous emissions have attracted increasing attention in recent years, whether in the form of black carbon for its contribution to global warming or as fine particulate matter posing a threat to human health. Coastal areas are particularly affected by this. Hence, there is a great need for shipping to explore alternative fuels that both reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as anticipated through IMO, and also have the potential to reduce particle emissions significantly. This paper presents a comparative study of the particulate emissions of two novel synthetic/biofuels (GTL and HVO), which might, in part, substitute traditionally used distillate liquid fuels (e.g., MDO). HFO particulate emissions, in combination with an EGCS, formed the baseline. The main emphasis was laid on particle concentration (PN) and particulate matter (PM) emissions, combining gravimetric and particle number measurements. Measurements were conducted on a 0.72 MW research engine at different loads (25%, 50%, and 75%). The results show that novel fuels produce slightly fewer emissions than diesel fuel. Results also exhibit a clear trend that particle formation decreases as engine load increases. The EGCS only moderately reduces particle emissions for all complaint fuels, which is related to the formation of very fine particles, especially at high engine loads.

Alternative green application areas for olive pomace catalytic pyrolysis biochar obtained via marble sludge catalyst

Evaluating industrial wastes in the system with minimum preprocessing and generation economically valuable products from them have critical importance. In this regard, especially cheap, wieldy, and readily available catalysts have been researched to increase variety of useful products in pyrolysis systems, to reduce process time, and to increase quality and diversity of products. Therefore, in this study, marble sludge (named K1) was evaluated as catalyst at different dosages (10%, 20%, 30%, 50%) and pyrolysis temperatures (300, 500, 700 °C) in olive pomace (OP) pyrolysis and; the potential green applications of produced new biochars at new usage areas with different purposes based on characteristics were investigated. ANOVA test results showed that temperature and catalysts ratio had significant effect on pyrolysis product yields since significance value for K1 and temperature was lower than 0.05 for pyrolysis products. OP-K1 biochars had alkaline properties and high earth metal quantities. Moreover, increment in K1 ratio and temperature resulted in decrement of the biochar surface acidity. Therefore, it can be indicated that these biochars can have a potential usage for anaerobic digestion processes, lithium-ion batteries, and direct carbon solid oxide fuel cell (DC-SOFC) but further electrochemical property test should be performed. Moreover, produced biochars can be alternative fuels in some processes instead of coal since they have low S content and high heat values. Consequently, it is foreseen that produced biochars will have an important place in the development of potential usage areas with a new and environmentally friendly approach in different areas apart from the conventional uses of catalytic pyrolysis chars.Graphical abstract

Effects of modified intake surface to gasoline engine performance with the use of LPG

Indonesia observes a yearly rise in motor vehicle possession. Failure to consider alternate fuels in these trends may result in the depletion of gasoline. Out of the potential alternatives, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) appears to be the most favorable. The sole issue lies in the elevated engine temperature and subsequent decrease in performance caused by its utilization. To address this vulnerability, it is advisable to employ a cooling injection method, such as water injection. Nevertheless, the rise in exhaust emissions linked to water injection highlights the necessity for optimization. This study aims to optimize coolant injection systems by conducting experiments with different modifications, such as conventional intake surfaces, dimple intake surfaces with gaps, and dimple intake surfaces without gaps. The gapless dimple inlet surface demonstrates superior performance in terms of exhaust emissions, power, and torque compared to both conventional inlet surfaces and slotted dimple inlet surfaces

Application of the ARCADIA Method on a Bulk Carrier Vessel Equipped with a Wind‐assistance Device

AbstractThe maritime industry is undergoing a major transformation to achieve reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Many new options, such as alternative propulsion systems and fuels, optimized routes, or auxiliary propulsion systems, including wind‐assistance devices, need to be integrated and aligned within a wide network of different stakeholders. New ways are necessary to work with and manage the increasing complexity in the maritime industry. Model‐based systems engineering approaches are a promising strategy to gain a better understanding of the as‐is situation and to develop advanced solutions. This paper shows the application of the ARCADIA method for the maritime industry, with the target of integrating wind‐assistance devices to vessels, using the ARCADIA modeling language and the Capella tool.

Novel biofuel blends for diesel engines: Optimizing engine performance and emissions with C. cohnii microalgae biodiesel and algae-derived renewable diesel blends

Fossil diesel is a significant global fuel; however, environmental concerns and resource scarcity necessitate alternative fuels. Third-generation microalgae biodiesel (MB), despite its carbon neutrality, leads to higher oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions and poor engine performance. Renewable diesel (RD), also known as hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO), could reduce these issues. A quasi-dimensional multi-zone combustion model is employed in this study to look into how different fuel blends of diesel, C. cohnii MB, and algae-derived RD affect the performance, combustion, and emissions of a compression ignition (CI) engine. The study uses a 2000 rpm engine arrangement with different engine loads, and validates the computational analysis with an experimental test engine arrangement. The study aims to explore the potential of sustainable biofuels in CI engines. D70MB30 (70 vol% diesel, and 30 vol% MB) fuel blend leads to a higher ignition delay period (IDP) while lowering peak cylinder pressure (PCP) and peak heat release rate (PHRR) compared to D100; however, when RD is added to diesel-MB fuel blends, it reduces IDP and increases PCP and PHRR. Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) for the D70MB30 blend rises by 5.28–8.9 %, while brake thermal efficiency (BTE) reduces by 0.98–4.27 %. However, RD in MB blends reduces BSFC by 1.57–3.41 % and marginally enhances BTE, resulting in greater fuel economy and efficiency. D70MB30 fuel blend results in higher specific carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions while lowering particulate matter (PM) and smoke emissions compared to neat diesel due to its high intrinsic oxygen content. In contrast, RD with the MB blend reduces specific CO2 and NOx emissions; however, it increases PM and smoke emissions due to the NOx-PM trade-off. The optimum results occur with a full load and D70MB15RD15 (70 vol% diesel, 15 vol% MB, and 15 vol% RD) fuel blend. Compared to the D70MB30 blend, D70MB15RD15 reduces BSFC, specific CO2, and NOx by 2.15 %, ∼1%, and 8.37 %, respectively, while increasing PM emissions at 100 % load.

General Methods for the Analysis of Chemical Properties of Fuels

This article is the third in a series of articles focused on presenting common methods for evaluating conventional and alternative fuels. The first two articles of the series were devoted to the determination of elements and non-hydrocarbon compounds in fuels [1]) and the determination of the physical properties of fuels [2]). This text presents an overview of the chemical properties determined for individual fuels. The chemical properties, acidity and alkalinity of fuels, content of unsaturated compounds, aniline point, water content, oxidation stability, and corrosive properties of fuels are presented in this article. The main goal of the article is to provide a comprehensive overview of which fuels are monitored, why they are monitored, and what methods are used for this monitoring. The emphasis is mainly on standardized parameters and tests, but in some cases, non-standardized tests are also discussed, or (additional) determinations not required by standards. For conventional and alternative fuels, several physical chemical, or other properties are used to evaluate the quality of these fuels. In this article, we present an overview of the chemical properties that are monitored for liquid and gaseous conventional and alternative fuels. These are acidity and alkalinity, content of unsaturated compounds, aniline point, water content, oxidation stability, and corrosive effects of fuels. In the article, we present the testing methods that are used to monitor these properties. Furthermore, we also present the reasons why these properties are monitored for individual fuels. Emphasis is placed on standardized parameters and tests, i.e., those prescribed by the relevant standards for individual fuels. However, parameters and alternative methods are also discussed, which are not prescribed by any standard for the respective fuels, but are supplementary determinations. The determination of elements and hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon compounds in fuels potentially falls within the scope of this article. However, since two separate articles [1] were devoted to these parameters, they will not be discussed here